Kanton trading system china

Kekaisaran China, divisi politik terbesar di Asia Timur. Meluas dari 1817610 sampai 5317645 N. lat. Dan dari 7317647 sampai 13417625 E. panjang. Ini mencakup China yang tepat atau Delapan Belas Provinsi (Shi-pa-sheng), yang secara teoritis merupakan wilayah subjek Manchuria. Tempat lahirnya dinasti ini, dan ketergantungannya: Mongolia. Ili (atau Sin-kiang), dan Tibet. Batasnya berada di utara, Siberia barat, Turkistan Rusia selatan, tenggara India Inggris, Burma dan Tong-raja timur, Samudra Pasifik timur laut, Korea. Artikel ini hanya terkait dengan China. Area dan populasi Secara kasar, Eighteen Provinces menempati hampir sepertiga dari permukaan kekaisaran. Areal China yang tepat diperkirakan di bilangan bulat di 2.000.000 mil persegi Pegravere Richard memberi 1.532.800. Panjangnya 1860, lebarnya 1.520 mil. Menurut hasil perdagangan resmi untuk tahun 1906, perkiraan populasi China adalah 438.214.000, yang mencakup Feng-tien (Provinsi Manchuria 16.000.000). The Almanachde Gotha (1904) dan Buku Tahunan Statesmans (1905) memberikan untuk Delapan Belas Provinsi 319.510.000 dan 407.335.305 masing-masing namun Hon. W. W. Rockhill dalam studi yang cermat (Smithson, Miscel, Col. quart, issue 27, part III) memberikan angka yang sangat rendah seperti 270.000.000. Populasi pada berbagai zaman adalah sebagai berikut: pada tahun 1390, 60,545,812 pada tahun 1500, 53,281,153 pada tahun 1619, 60.692.856 waktu Macartney. 333.000.000 pada tahun 1842, 419.600.000 pada tahun 1894, 412.800.000. Orang Cina menyebut kerajaan mereka Chung kwo (Kerajaan Tengah), sebuah nama yang pertama kali diterapkan pada Ho-nan, negara dinasti Chou, seorang Chinaman ditunjuk Chung-kwo-jen atau man of the Middle Kingdom dalam diplomasi China adalah Ta-tsing Kwo (Kerajaan besar Tsing, dinasti ini) seperti sebelumnya Ta Ming Kwo (kerajaan besar Ming). Dalam literatur itu disebut Tien Hia (Under Heaven), Sze Hai keempat (sekitarnya) lautan, Chung Hwa Kwo (Kerajaan Middle Flowery) beberapa nama mengacu pada dinasti yang terkenal, Hwa Hia (Hia yang mulia), Han-jen atau Han - Tze (pria atau anak laki-laki Han), Tang-jen atau Tang-shan (pria atau pegunungan Tang). Orang-orang Arab menyebut China Sin, Chin. Mahachin, Machin. Sinaelig dan Seres of Ptolemy dan penulis klasik lainnya mungkin mewakili orang Cina. Di Abad Pertengahan. Orang Eropa membuat perbedaan antara Utara (Cathay) dan Selatan (Manzi) China. Mungkin saja nama China, dari dinasti Tsin (abad ketiga SM), sampai ke Barat melalui Burma dan India. Fitur fisik Pantai dan Kepulauan Samudra Pasifik membawa beberapa nama ke selatan disebut Nan-Hai, atau Laut Selatan (Cina), lebih jauh ke pantai, Tung-hai, atau Laut Timur, dan Hwang-Hai, atau Laut Kuning. Pantai membentuk setengah lingkaran, pulau-pulau di provinsi Che-kiang (123x E. panjang Greenwich), yang membentang paling jauh ke timur ke utara adalah teluk Semenanjung Chi-li dan Shan-tung di selatan teluk Tong-king. , Pulau Hai-nan, dan Semenanjung Lei-chou. Ada juga Teluk Liao-tung, Kepulauan Miao-tao, Kepulauan Chusan, dengan Ting-hai dan ziarah Pu-tu yang terkenal. Pulau Amoy. Sam-sa, Hai-tan, Kin-pria, Tung-shan, Tai-wan atau Formosa (sekarang orang Jepang) Nan-hai, Mirs Bay (Tapong-hai), Hiang-kiang (Hong Kong), Lappa. Dan Kwang-chou Bays di kepulauan Namoa, Hong Kong. Lan-tao, Kepulauan Lamma, Ladrones (Lao-wan-chan), Kepulauan Chwan (Shang-chwan, juga disebut San-cian atau St. Johns, di mana St. Francis Xavier meninggal pada tahun 1552), Hia-chwan, dan Paket (Tai-chou). Lampu suar pertama dinyalakan di mulut Yang-tze pada tahun 1855, rumah cahaya pertama dipasang di pulau Kung-tung, dekat Che-fu, pada tahun 1867. Pada tahun 1907, pesisir dan pelabuhan di China: 116 Mercusuar, 5 lightships 24 perahu ringan, 137 pelampung, 10 beacon, 392 di semua sungai utama adalah Yang-tze, yang hanya disebut Ta-Kiang (Sungai Besar) atau Kiang (Sungai) sejauh tikungan Sze-chwan disebut Kin - Sha-kiang umumnya adalah dari barat ke timur dan panjangnya sekitar 4000 mil. Kapal ini bisa dilayari dari laut ke I-chaang, dan semi-navigable, karena jeram dari I-chaang ke Ping-shan-hien. Di provinsi Sze-chwan, anak-anak sungainya, di sebelah kiri, adalah Ya-lung-kiang, sungai Min-kiang (Cheng-tu), dan Kia-ling-kiang di sebelah kanan Ho-kiang dan Wu - kiang di Hu-pe, ia menerima di sebelah kiri Han-kiang di Kiang-su, melintasi Grand Canal di dekat mulutnya, ia menerima Sungai Hwang-pu atau Shanghai di muaranya, terbagi menjadi dua cabang oleh Pulau Chung-ming Ini menyapu kota-kota di Ching-kiang, Nan-king, Wu-hu. Ngan-raja Kiu-kiang. Han-kou. I-chang, Chung-king, Sui-fu. Dan Ping-shan. Sebutkan harus dilakukan dari sungai berikut: sebelah utara Yang-tze Liao-ho yang naik di Kingan besar. Timur laut Dolon-maupun. Dan perairan Manchuria Selatan, Pai-ho (Hai-ho), yang mengalir melalui Tien-tsin di mulutnya adalah Taku. Sebelumnya dengan benteng di pintu masuk Hwang-Ho (Sungai Kuning) atau hanya Ho, yang hampir sepanjang Yang-tze, dan merupakan momok Cina karena banjirnya di tengah jalannya, hal itu membentuk sebuah tikungan besar. , Di mana ia berada di antara provinsi Shen-si dan Shan-si. Mengepung daerah-daerah di negara bagian Ordos yang menerima di sebelah kanan anak sungai utamanya, Wei sungai yang besar, dan di sebelah kiri Fen-ho pada suatu waktu berlari ke Laut Kuning, di sebelah selatan Semenanjung Shang-tung, tapi sekarang Mengikuti jalannya Tsi-ho dan berjalan ke utara semenanjung, lembah Ho dianggap tempat lahir China. Bagian selatan Yang-tze adalah: Sungai Tungen-tang-kiang di Sungai Hang-chou, yang dirayakan karena menanggung Min-kiang. Yang dibentuk oleh Kien-ki, Shoa-wu-ki, dan Ning-hwa-ki di sungai Fu-chou. Si-kiang (sungai barat) dari Yun-nan menerima di sebelah kanan Yu-kiang. Sudah meningkat oleh masuknya Tso-kiang. Sungai Nan-ning di sebelah kiri Liu-kiang. Kiang Pei (Utara) hanya di sisi Chao-raja-fu ini, Si-kiang terbagi menjadi beberapa cabang di cabang utara yang perairan Kanton disebut Chu-kiang atau Pearl River dan mengalir ke laut melalui para pria Hu. , Disebut juga Bocca Tigris atau Bogue, yang juga mengosongkan dari Timur Tung-kiang. Terowongan Grand atau Imperial, yang disebut Yo-ho atau Yun-ho, dimulai, dikatakan, pada abad keenam SM. Dan selesai hanya pada tahun 1283 di bawah dinasti Mongol, ini berjalan dari Tien-tsin ke Hang-chou, melintasi Yang-tze di Chin-kiang dan merupakan jalur air dari Dataran Besar. Danau utama adalah sungai Tung-ting di provinsi Hunan dan Po-Yang di Kiang-si. Keduanya di selatan Yang-tze oleh Kanal Yo-chou yang terakhir diberi makan oleh Kan-kiang. Sebutkan juga harus dibuat dari Ta-hu dekat Su-chou (Kiang-su) dan Si-hu. Dekat Hang-chou (Che-kiang). Dua gunung utama di China, cabang dari dataran tinggi Tibet. Adalah Kwen-lun Timur dan Nan-shan. Kwen-lun Timur meliputi pegunungan A-la-shan dan Kan-su di Tsin-ling, antara Hwang-ho dan Yang-tze the Min-shan dan Kiu-lun. Nan-shan atau Nan-ling meluas dari Yun-nan. Kwei-chou dan Kwang-si. Antara Yang-tze dan Si-kiang. Untuk Kwang-tung dan Fu-kien, taji terakhir mereka muncul di Kepulauan Chusan. Sebutkan juga harus dibuat dari O-mi-shan, yaitu Gunung O-mi (di Sze-chwan), Wu-tai-shan (utara Shan-si), dan Dokerla. Dekat Aten-tze. Semua resor peziarah terkenal. Dataran Besar China meluas dari Tien-tsin ke Hang-chou, membentuk bagian provinsi Chi-li, Ho-nan, Ngan-hwei. Kiang-su, dan Shang-tung barat bisa dianggap sebagai lembah Kanal Besar. Sebuah deposit tertentu yang disebut loess atau hwang-tu (tanah kuning) mencakup sebagian besar Kan-su, Shen-si. Dan terutama Shan-si, pembentukan tersier ini ditandai oleh kecenderungan untuk berpisah secara vertikal dan oleh banyak celah yang disebabkan oleh erosi, gua-gua di deposit ini mudah diperdalam dan sering berfungsi sebagai tempat tinggal bagi penduduk, hal itu sangat subur karena alasan Shan - Si provinsi telah disebut lumbung kekaisaran. Geografi Politik Divisi teritorial Kekaisaran China sangat beragam pada waktu yang berbeda-beda. Di bawah Kaisar Yu yang Agung dan dinasti Hia, ibu kota Yang-hia (dalam Ho-nan), dan China terbagi menjadi sembilan chou. Ke, Tsing. Yen. Su, Yu, Yung, Leang. Raja, dan Yang. Di bawah Shang ibukota Po, dekat modern Kwei-teacute-fu (Ho-nan), dan divisi tetap sama. Di bawah Chou (1122-660 SM), ibu kota berturut-turut adalah Hao (Chang-ngan) dan Lo-Yang (781 SM), dan masih ada sembilan chou. Kamu, Ping Yen. Ching. Che, Yung, Yu, Chin. Yang. Selama periode yang dicakup oleh Sejarah Musim Semi dan Musim Gugur Konfusius (781-519 SM), ibu kota adalah Lo-Yang dan ada kerajaan berikut: Chou (1122-249), Loo (1121-248), Wei (1077-413 ), Tsai (1106-446), Tsin (1106-376), Tsaou (1051-486). Cheng (805-374), Woo (1290-472), Yen (863-221), Chen (853-478), Sung (1077-285), Tse (1076-220), Tsu (1077-222), Tsin (908-245). Di bawah dinasti Tsin (220-204 SM) Cina terbagi menjadi 36 kiun. Di bawah dinasti Han (206 SM sampai 25 M.) ibukota Chang-ngan ada 103 pemerintahan, 241 yang telah menikah. 32 tao atau provinsi, 1314 hien. Di bawah dinasti Han Timur (25-25 M), ada 13 chou dan ibu kotanya adalah Lo-Yang. Ibu kota China pada gilirannya atau pada saat bersamaan: Lo-Yang (dinasti Wei), Cheng-tu (Shu dari Sze-chwan), Kien-kang. Atau Nan-king (Wu), Hang-chou (Sung Selatan 420-477), Ta-tung (Wei Utara, 386-532), Chang-ngan (Sui, 581-618), Lo-Yang (Tang, 618 -907), Kai-feng dan Hang-chou (Sung, 960-1126), Peking. Disebut Yen-king di bawah Kin, dan Cambalue di bawah Yuan. Selama periode Mongol Cina dibagi menjadi sepuluh sheng atau provinsi di bawah dinasti Ming ada lima belas sheng, Kan-su telah diambil dari Shen-si. Kiang-nan terbagi menjadi Kiang-su dan Ngan-hwei. Dan Hu-kwang menjadi Hu-pe dan Hu-nan. Sekarang ada delapan belas provinsi. Pada suatu waktu Formosa membentuk satu provinsi Kiang-hwai, atau Kiang-su Utara, untuk sementara terlepas dari Kiang-su (1905). Delapan belas provinsi Delapan belas Provinsi (Shi-pa-sheng) terdiri dari: (1) Chi-li (yang berarti pemerintahan langsung), di mana Peking (Shun-tien-fu), ibu kota kekaisaran. Ibukotanya adalah tempat utama Pao-ting Sien-hwa, Chen-te (Shehol), Yung-ping. Tien-tsin, Ho-kien. Chen-ting menyebutkan juga harus dibuat dari Shang-hai-kwan, yang terpenting melewati Tembok Besar. Dolon-atau (Lama-miao), kediaman musim panas yang lama dari kaisar Mongol, penduduknya adalah 29.400.000. (2) Shang-tung (sebelah timur gunung, ibukota Heng-shan), tempat-tempat utama Tsi-nan: Tsi-ning-chou Tsing-chou-fu, Chou-tsun, Lai-chou, Teng-chou, perjanjian Pelabuhan Che-fu, perusahaan Inggris Wei-hei-wei, pelabuhan Jerman Tsing-tao (Kiao-chou) Tai-shan adalah tempat ziarah yang dirayakan. Konfusius dan Mencius lahir di provinsi ini populasi 38.000.000 (3) ibu kota Shang-si (sebelah barat gunung), produk utama Tai-yuan-fu, batu bara dan besi utama, kota utama Wu-tai-shan: Kwei-hwa - Cheng (juga disebut Kuku-choto atau kota biru), Ta-tung. Ping-yang-fu, Ping-ting-chou adalah populasi Shan-si. Shen-si. Kan-su, Ho-nan, dan Kwei-chou diperkirakan mencapai 55.000.000. (4) Ho-nan selatan sungai (ibukota Hwang-ho), Kai-feng dekat Ho-nan-fu. Adalah gunung suci Sung. Di sebelah barat yang terletak menikam orang-orang paru-paru, yang bank-banknya dihiasi dengan patung-patung kuno. (5) Kiang-su suku kata pertama dari ibukota Kiang-ning (Nan-king) dan Su-chou, kota utama Su-chou Kiang-ning (Nan-king), dulunya adalah ibu kota kekaisaran, dan sekarang tinggal sebagai raja muda Kota utama Liang-kiang atau Dua Kiangs, Shanghai, bank perdagangan terpenting China, dan Yang-chou di populasi Grand Canal 23.980.000. (6) Ngan-hwei (suku kata pertama dari Ngan-king dan Hwei-chou) ibukota Ngan-king di tepi kiri tempat utama Yang-tze Wu-hu. Sebuah pelabuhan perjanjian, Hwei-chou. Feng-yang, tempat kelahiran populasi Mings, 36.000.000. (7) ibu kota Kiang-si (barat dari Kiang) Nan-chang. Di Kan-kiang. Selatan tempat kepala danau Po-Yang yang terkenal tempat Kiu-kiang. Sebuah pelabuhan perjanjian, Yao-chou. King-te-chen. Pusat pembuatan porselen, dengan 100.000 tenaga kerja berpenduduk 25.534.000. (8) ibukota Che-kiang (sungai bengkok), Hang-chou, di tepi kiri Tsien-tang, dekat tempat utama Lake Si-hu yang terkenal: Hu-chou, Shao-hing, Ning-po. Ting-hai. Lan-ki-hien, populasi Kin-hwa 11.800.000. (9) Fu-kien (suku kata pertama dari Fu-chou dan Kien-ning) modal, Fu-chou di tepi kiri tempat utama Min: Tsean-chou, Amoy (Hiamen), Chang-chou. Tung-ngan, Yen-ping, Kien-ning. Chung-ngan, Lien-kiang, populasi Fu-ning, 20.000.000. (10) ibu kota Hu-pe (sebelah utara danau, Tung-ting), Wu-chang. Di tepi kanan Yang-tze di mulut Han-ho yang berlawanan, di tepi kanan Han, ada Han-yang, di sebelah kiri Han-kou tempat penting lainnya, I-chang, Sha-shi. Siang-yang berpenduduk 34.000.000. (11) ibu kota Hunan (selatan danau), Chang-sha, di tepi kanan tempat utama Siang-kiang, Heng-chou. Siang-tan, Siang-yin, Yo-Chou, dan populasi Chang-te pasar kota besar 22.000.000. (12) Kwang-tung (sebelah timur ibukota Kwang), Kwang-chou (Kanton) setelah tahun 1664, ketika menggantikan tempat-tempat utama Chou-raja-fu: Chao-chou. Fa-chan, Swatow. Pak-hoi. Populasi Kiung-chou (Hai-nan) 32.000.000. (13) Kwang-si (sebelah barat ibukota Kwang), Kwei-lin. Di tempat utama Kwei-kiang, Wu-chou di Si-kiang. Nan-ning dari Yu-kiang. Lung-chou di Tso-kiang Liu-chou di Liu-kiang. Populasi Po-se 8.000.000. (14) Yun-nan (selatan awan) ibu kota, Yun-nan-fu Tempat utama: Ta-li-fu, ibu kota pemberontak Mohammed, Tung-chwan, Chao-tung, Meng-tze, Sze-mao. Aten-tze. Momein (Teng-yueh) provinsi ini memiliki populasi asing yang besar, terutama Minchia, Lolos, Miao-tze. Dll populasi, 8.000.000. (15) Kwai-chou (wilayah berharga) ibukota Kwei-yang tempat utama: Tsun-i-fu, Pi-tsieh-hien, Ngan-shun, Hing-i-fu. (16) Shen-si (sebelah barat dari Shen Tung-kwan Pass), ibu kota Si-ngan-fu di dekat Wei-ho tempat pengadilan kekaisaran memperbaiki tempat pemberontakan Boxer (1900): Han-chung. Hing-ngan. (17) Kan-su (suku kata pertama dari Kan-chou dan Su-chou) modal, Lan-chou. Di tepi kanan tempat utama Wang-ho: Si-ning ke barat daya biara yang dirayakan Gum-bum, Ning-hia. Liang-chou. Kan-chou. Su-chou. (18) modal Sze-chwan (empat sungai, yaitu Yang-tze, Min, Chung dan Kia-ling), Cheng-tu. Di tempat utama yang kaya raya dan kaya air: Ta-tsien-lu, Ya-chou, Kia-ting, Su-chou atau Sui-fu. Shun-raja, Wan. Ling-yuen, ibu kota Kien-chang, populasi Lolo, Li-tang, dan Ba-tang, 79.500.000 diperkirakan pada tahun 1904 oleh A. Hosie di 45.000.000. Singkatan berikut digunakan dalam dinas bea cukai, pos, dan telegrafik: An. Ngan-hwei Che. Che-kiang Chi. Chi-li Fu. Fu-kien Hei. Hei-paru-kiang (Manchuria) Ho. Ho-Nan Hun. Hu-nan Hup. Hu-pe Kan Kan-su Ki. Raja Kiang-si. Sheng-raja Kir. Kirin (Manchuria) Ku. Kiang-su Kwei. Kwei-chou Man. Manchuria Sha. Shan-si Sht. Si Si Shan. Kwang-si Sin. Sin-kiang Sze. Sze-chwan Tung. Kwang-tung Yun. Etnografi Yun-nan Ini akan menjadi kesalahan besar untuk berpikir bahwa orang-orang China semua satu ras. Chinaman biasa berukuran sedang, sangat kuat, dengan wajah bulat, penuh, tulang pipi tinggi, hidung pendek, tertekan, bibir tebal, dan gigi halus. Matanya hitam dan sering miring, keripiknya bervariasi antara putih pucat dan coklat gelap yang dicukur dahi, dan rambut hitamnya yang kasar menggantung di punggungnya dengan anyaman jenggotnya hitam dan sedikit, kakinya kecil. Orang Cina yang benar Artinya, penduduk asli provinsi-provinsi pusat, dari tepi Hwang-ho dan Yang-tze yang lebih rendah, sangat berbeda dengan bangsanya dari provinsi-provinsi marinim di Kwang-tung dan Fu-kien. Tidak hanya ada perbedaan rasial antara berbagai jenis orang Tionghoa, namun masih ada perbedaan lebih jauh dari berbagai orang yang tinggal di perbatasan maupun di provinsi. Di sebelah utara, orang Tatar, Manchu. Dan Mongol. Di sebelah barat orang Tibet adalah kelompok penting. Orang Cina menyebut suku bangsa non-Cina sebagai barbar, atau Yi, Fan. Dan Man istilah Yi digunakan untuk menunjuk orang Eropa dan dilarang oleh Pasal 51 Perjanjian Inggris untuk Tien tsin (1858) Fan-lao atau Fan-jen menurut SW Williams yang digunakan di Kanton untuk orang asing, nama umum Man dan Mantze adalah Dipekerjakan lebih khusus lagi di Barat dan Selatan dan mencakup orang-orang non-Cina seperti Yao. Chwang. Tho, Lolo. Atau Y-kia, Chung-kia, Si-fan, suku Miao, dll tersebar melalui Sze-chwan dan Yun-nan. Sedangkan Hakkas tinggal di Kwang-tung. Ada juga suku-suku liar di Formosa, di lereng barat pegunungan pusat. Antrian (pien-tze) yang dikenakan oleh orang Cina dan karakteristik balapan tersebut, diimpor oleh penaklukan Manchu pada tahun 1627. Untuk memampatkan kaki betina jauh dari kebiasaan universal. Dan tidak memiliki hubungan dengan posisi atau keberuntungan, wanita Manchu (yaitu keluarga kekaisaran) dan sebagian besar wanita selatan tidak memperlakukan kaki mereka dengan cara yang tidak wajar ini, tidak ada data yang dapat dipercaya mengenai asal mula penyiksaan ini, yang kembali, Ada yang bilang, sampai tahun 583 M. Beberapa tahun yang lalu beberapa wanita Eropa memulai gerakan anti-pengikat kaki dengan nama Tien Tsu Hwei. Yang tampaknya telah bertemu dengan cukup banyak keberhasilan. Beberapa orang Cina, terutama ilmuwan, memakai kuku yang luar biasa panjangnya, yang dimaksudkan untuk menunjukkan bahwa pemiliknya berada di atas tenaga kerja manual. Terkadang mereka melapisi kuku mereka dengan kuningan perak. Pemerintah Sejak awal abad kelima belas, tempat pemerintahan telah menjadi Peking (pengadilan utara), namanya Shun-tien-fu di provinsi Chi-li, pengadilan selatan (Nan-king) adalah Kiang-ning di Kiang - Su provinsi, ibukota kekaisaran di awal dinasti Ming. Kaisar ditata Hwang-ti (kaisar) atau Hwang-sheng, Wan-sui Yeh, Tien-tze (anak surga), Tien-wang (pangeran surgawi) sang peremek ditata Hwang-heu atau Chung-kung dimana ada Dua permaisuri mereka ditunjuk sebagai Tung kung dan Si kung (masing-masing di timur dan barat, menurut bagian istana tempat mereka tinggal. Pewarisnya adalah Hwang-tai-tze bangsawan kekaisaran turun-temurun meliputi: Tsin-wang, pangeran Dari urutan pertama Kiun-wang, dari urutan kedua Pei-leh (Bei-leh) dari urutan ketiga Pei-tze, dari urutan keempat Fung-ngen Chen Kwo-kung. Duke dari orde pertama Fung-ngen Fu Kwo - kung urutan kedua Pu-ju, Pa-fen Chen Kwo-kung, dari urutan ketiga Pu-ju, Pa-fen Fu Kwo-kung, dari urutan keempat Chen-Kwo Tsaing-kiun. Fu-Kwo Tsaing Teka-teki adalah kelas pertama, kedua, ketiga, dan keempat masing-masing. Tsung-shi adalah klan kekaisaran, keturunan Hien Tsu (1583-1615) , Pendiri Manch Dinasti Anda, dan dibedakan oleh korset kuning mereka semua urusan yang berkaitan dengan keluarga kekaisaran diperlakukan oleh Tsung-jen-fu, Pengadilan Klan Kekaisaran. Ada delapan keluarga pangeran dengan warisan abadi: Li Tsin-wang. Pangeran Li Jui Tsin-wang. Pangeran Jui Yu Tsin-wang. Pangeran Yu Su Tsin-wang. Pangeran Su Cheng Tsin-wang. Pangeran Cheng Chwang Tsin-wang. Pangeran Chwang Shun-cheacuteng Kiun-wang. Pangeran Shun-cheacuteng Ke-kerabat Kiun-wang. Pangeran Ke-kerabat. Saya Tsin Wang, Pangeran I, tidak termasuk dalam delapan, juga terus-menerus. Pemerintah pusat mencakup: (1) Kiun-ki Chu, Dewan Negara, yang diciptakan oleh Yung Cheacuteng pada bulan April 1732, termasuk beberapa menteri dan Enam puluh sekretaris, Chang-king (2) Nei-ko atau Grand Secretariat. Termasuk empat sekretaris besar, Ta-heo-dia dari Chung Tang, dua Manchu. Dan dua orang Cina, masing-masing ditunjuk oleh salah satu paviliun Istana Kekaisaran: Wen Hwa-tien, Wu Ying-tien, Ti Jen-ko, Tung-ko di bawah dinasti Ming Chung Tang disebut Ko-lao ini adalah judulnya. Dari sekretaris Paul Siu yang terkenal (Siu Kwang-ki) dua asisten sekretaris agung meneriakkan Hie-pan Ta-hio-dia (3) dewan menteri atau Liu Pu, yang, sebelum tahun 1906, berjumlah enam: Li Pu, Dewan Penunjukan Sipil Hu Pu, Dewan Peninjau Li Pu, Dewan Ritual Ping Pu, dewan perang Hing Pu, Dewan Kehakiman Kung Pu, Dewan Pekerjaan Umum. Yo Pu atau Board of State Music adalah ketergantungan Dewan Ritual. Beberapa dewan atau kementerian ini telah direnovasi, dan yang baru dibuat sejak tahun 1906, dan sekarang termasuk, di samping Pu Wai-wu, papan berikut: Li Pu, Dewan Pegawai Negeri Min-cheng Pu, Dewan Rumah Urusan Tu-chi Pu, Dewan Keuangan Hio Pu, Dewan Pendidikan atau Instruksi Publik Fa Pu, Dewan Kehakiman Lu-kiun Pu, Menteri Perang Nung-kung-shang Pu, Dewan Pertanian, Pekerjaan, dan Perdagangan Yu-chwan Pu, papan pos dan komunikasi. Termasuk navigasi uap, pos, dan telegraf Li Pu, Dewan Ritus Siun-raja Pu, Dewan Keamanan Umum. Sebelumnya ke 1906, masing-masing dewan memiliki dua presiden (Shang-su), Manchu dan Cina, dua wakil presiden senior, (Tso She-Lang), dan dua wakil presiden junior, (Yeo She-Lang) sekarang ada satu presiden Dan dua wakil presiden. Tsung-li Ko Kwo-she-wu Yamen. Biasa disebut Tsung-li Yamen. Kantor Luar Negeri. Diciptakan oleh Hien Fung. 20 Januari 1861, setelah perang dengan Prancis dan Inggris, urusan luar negeri sebelumnya ditangani oleh Li Fan-yuan. Papan untuk administrasi negara-negara vassal, yang mengendalikan Mongolia. Tibet. Dll dan sebelumnya Rusia Li Fan-yuan kini telah menjadi kementerian koloni Tsung-li Yamen diganti (23 Juli 1901) oleh Pu Wai-wu. Pengadilan Sensor atau Sensor (Tu Cha Yuan) memiliki dua presiden (Tu Yu-she), empat wakil presiden, dua puluh empat sensor pengawas (Liu ko), terbagi menjadi enam papan, dan tiga puluh delapan sensor (Yu-che ) Mendistribusikan lebih dari lima belas Tao atau sirkuit. Han-lin Yuan, akademisi akademisi, memiliki dua presiden (Chang-yuan Hio-dia). Ada juga Kwo Tze Kien atau kekaisaran. Dan Kin-tien Kien. Atau papan astronomi. Dll. Administrasi Provinsi Ada delapan belas provinsi (Shi-pa-sheng) sheng ini dibagi menjadi Tao (sirkuit), Fu (prefektur), Ting (prefektur independen), Chou, dan Hien independent Chou disebut Chi-li Chou . Delapan Belas Provinsi. Bersama dengan Sin-kiang. Berada di bawah delapan gubernur jenderal atau wakil menteri (Tsung-tu atau Che-tai) dan dua belas gubernur, tiga di antaranya independen. Delapan mahkamah agung adalah Chi-li, Liang-kiang (termasuk Kiang-su, Ngan-hwei dan Kiang-si), Min-che (Fu-kien, Che-kiang), Liang-hou (Hu-pe, Hu - nan), Liang-kwang (Kwang-tung, Kwang-si), Yun-kwei (Yun-nan, Kwei-chou), Shen-kan (Shen-si, Kan-su), dan Sze-chwan. Setiap provinsi dipimpin oleh gubernur, (Siun-fu, Fu-tai) kecuali Chi-li, Fu-kien, Kan-su, Sze-chwan. Kwang-tung. Yun-nan. Dan Kan-su ada satu di Sin-kiang Fu-tai Shang-tung, Shan-si. Dan Ho-nan tidak berada di bawah gubernur jenderal, tapi langsung berada di bawah Peking. Segera setelah gubernurnya adalah bendahara provinsi tinggi (Pu-cheng She-sze atau Fan-tai), hakim tinggi provinsi (Ngan-cha She-sze atau Nieh-tai), pengontrol garam (Yen-yun She-sze) , Dan intensi gandum (Liang-tao) berbagai pejabat ini masing-masing membentuk pemerintah provinsi di bawah nama kolektif Tu-fu Sze-tao. Selanjutnya agar Fen-siun Tao menjadi tujuan rangkaian (Tao-tai - 98 di semua), prefek Fu (Che-fu - 181), Tung-che (170) Tung-pan (141) Che-chou (140) Che Hien, tokoh distrik (1290) ada seorang direktur instruksi Hio-cheng (Hio-yuan, Hio-tai), atau provinsi di setiap provinsi, yang memimpin ujian prefektur . Pejabat Cina yang dikenal orang Eropa sebagai Mandarin (dari mandar ke komando) disebut Kwan oleh orang Tionghoa ada sembilan jajaran kwan, terbagi menjadi pejabat sipil dan militer, yang dibedakan dengan tombol yang dikenakan di topi resmi, di alun-alun Lencana bersulam di payudara dan belakang jubah resmi (seekor burung untuk orang sipil, berkaki empat untuk militer, dan dengan gantungan korsetnya. Seorang pejabat provinsi sampai ke Tao-tai inklusif ditata Ta-jen (orang hebat) dari Che Fu ke Che Hien, namanya adalah Ta Lao-ye (ayah tua yang hebat) untuk sisa Lao-kamu (ayah tua). Berbagai bentuk pembedaan diberikan untuk pelayanan publik asas jika Ling-che (bulu) dari Yang ada tiga tingkat yang sesuai dengan tingkat perbedaan: bulu mata bermata tiga, bermata dua, dan bulu mata bermata satu (Kung Tsio-ling) dan bulu gagak (Lan-ling, bulu biru). Perbedaan utama Bagi pria militer adalah Hing-kwa atau Hwang-ma-kwa (jaket berkuda kuning). Ada sembilan Derajat bangsawan, baik yang dapat ditransmisikan ke sejumlah nenek moyang atau keturunan (she-si), atau turun temurun selamanya (she-si-wang): Kung (duke), Hou (marquis), Pe (earl - together yang ditunjuk sebagai Chao Pin), Tze (viscount), Nan (baron), King-che Tu-yu, Ki-tu-yu, Yun-ki-yu. Terjemahan kadang-kadang diberi lima judul pertama ditunjukkan dalam tanda kurung. Tempat tinggal mandarin yang memegang meterai disebut Yamen dari mandarin tanpa meterai. Kung-su. Anak-anak China yang lebih tua, setelah diajar untuk membaca dan menulis, harus belajar buku-buku dasar seperti Raja San-tze (Klasik Tiga Karakter), Pe-kia-singing (Seratus Nama Keluarga), dan Tsien-tze-wen (Satu Ribu-Klasik Karakter) kemudian mereka mempelajari Sze Shu atau Empat Buku Klasik. Memori dikembangkan dengan mengorbankan fakultas kritis, sains hampir terbengkalai. Kaligrafi yang bagus dan pengetahuan menyeluruh tentang klasik Konfusius merupakan syarat utama untuk lulus ujian. Di mana sebuah esai tentang teks yang dipilih dari ketiga klasik ini, dan disebut wen-chang. Memainkan peran yang cukup besar. Wen-chang, yang ditekan pada tahun 1898 selama periode reformasi yang singkat, telah pasti dihapuskan. Kantor sipil direkrut dari mereka yang lulus dalam tiga ujian. Hiang-dia (provinsi), yang diadakan secara triwulan di musim gugur Hwai-dia (metropolitan) di Peking. Di Tien musim semi-dia, pemeriksaan istana. Siswa (Tung-sheng) mengambil berturut-turut tiga tingkat: Siu-tsai, Ku-jen, dan Tsin-dia pada ujian terakhir, empat pesaing pertama menerima gelar dari Chwang Yuan, Pang yen, Tan Hwa. Dan Chwan Lu. Setelah perang dengan Rusia. Cina merasakan perlunya perubahan menyeluruh Konfusianisme tidak lagi menjadi senjata yang memadai melawan perusahaan Barat. Dasar. Sekolah dasar, menengah, tinggi, dan khusus yang lebih tinggi didirikan dengan prinsip-prinsip asing. Sebuah universitas dan sebuah sekolah teknik dibuka di Peking. Sementara siswa muda dikirim ke luar negeri, terutama ke Jepang. Harus diakui bahwa yang terakhir membawa kembali dari Kekaisaran Matahari Terbit semangat yang sama sekali baru. Mereka telah bertanggung jawab, untuk sebagian besar, untuk reorganisasi masyarakat rahasia. Yang bertujuan tidak hanya pada reformasi, tapi juga pada penggulingan dinasti ini. Dengan sebuah keputusan kekaisaran yang bertanggal 2 Sept. 1905, dan mulai berlaku pada awal tahun 1906, bekas program dan metode pemeriksaan dihapuskan, dan sebuah sistem pendidikan baru diresmikan. Ini termasuk studi bahasa Cina, sastra. Dan komposisi, berbagai ilmu yang dipelajari di Barat. sejarah. geografi. Bahasa asing, terutama bahasa jepang. Latihan senam dan latihan. Dan di kelas yang lebih tinggi studi ekonomi politik. Dan hukum sipil dan internasional. Sebagai konsekuensi alami, derajat baru sesuai dengan B. A .. M. A. LL. D. Dll diciptakan. Jelaslah bahwa sikap pikiran Cina sedang mengalami perubahan besar melalui kontak dengan gagasan Barat dan belajar apa yang kurang jelas adalah bahwa lapisan-lapisan bangsa yang lebih dalam belum tercapai. Filsafat filsafat Cina. Paling tidak dalam apa yang mendasar, diwujudkan dalam buku-buku agama, atau lebih tepatnya dalam karya klasik yang disebut Raja. Konfusius lebih merupakan kolektor daripada pencipta dia adalah seorang guru moral, diilhami oleh tradisi yang telah dia pelajari dan kuasai, dan di antaranya dia adalah wakil ideal, tapi dia bukanlah seorang penemu. Pria yang menancapkan filosofi China dengan kepribadiannya yang kuat. Atau lebih tepatnya jeniusnya, adalah filsuf Chu Hi (1130-1200), lahir di Fu-kien selama dinasti Sung. Dia melakukan retret untuk interval meditasi di Gua Rusa Putih di perbukitan dekat danau Po-Yang. Kitab Perubahan (Y-raja) dimulai dengan Tai-ki. Yang Mutlak Besar menurut Chu Hai pada awalnya ada prinsip primordial, monama abstrak tidak menyebut apa-apa, Wu-ki. Saat bergerak, Mutlak Agung dihasilkan oleh nafasnya yang menarik, Yang. Prinsip besar laki-laki saat akhirnya beristirahat dalam memproduksi Yin. Atau prinsip wanita besar setelah pembagian besar ini di atas adalah surga. Di bawahnya adalah bumi, dan selama evolusi dan gerakan berikutnya diciptakan pada gilirannya, matahari dan bulan, bintang dan planet, air dan api, manusia dan hewan. Sayuran dan mineral, dll. Empat hukum mengatur pergerakan kedua prinsip ini: (1) Hai. Nafas alam. Diatur bukan secara sewenang-wenang namun dengan hukum tetap dan tidak dapat ditebak (2) Li. Hukum alam (3) Jadi. Jumlah atau proporsi numerik alam semesta (3) Ying. Penampilan bentuk alam. Sistem filosofis ini diwakili oleh diagram. Terkadang tiga kekuatan alam (San-tsai), yaitu Tien (Surga), Ti (Bumi), Jen (Manusia), ditunjukkan oleh sebuah segitiga. Dua prinsip primitif ditunjukkan, yang pertama oleh garis lurus yang sesuai dengan Yang. Prinsip laki-laki, surga Cahaya, dll yang kedua oleh garis putus-putus yang sesuai dengan Yin. Prinsip perempuan, bumi, kegelapan, dll. Kombinasi dari garis-garis ini memberikan empat angka berikut: (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) Tai Yang. Sesuai dengan matahari, panas, mata, dll. (2) Tai Yin sesuai dengan bulan, dingin, telinga, dll. (3) Shao Yang sesuai dengan bintang, siang hari, hidung, dll. (4) Shao Yin sesuai dengan planet, malam, mulut, dan lain-lain. Kombinasi baru dari angka-angka ini terungkap pada Fu-hi (2852-2738 SM), oleh seekor kuda naga yang naik dari Sungai Kuning dan dipresentasikan pada tatapan Kaisar sebuah gulungan di punggungnya ditulis dengan diagram mistik yang, disusun, terdiri dari delapan trigram atau simbol yang disebut Pa-kwa. (1) Sesuai dengan surga dan prinsip laki-laki murni, seluruhnya terdiri dari seluruh garis (2) uap, hembusan air, danau (3) api, panas, cahaya (4) guntur (5) angin (6) air (7) Gunung (8) bumi dan prinsip feminin murni, seluruhnya terdiri dari garis putus-putus. Pengaturan segi delapan yang dirancang oleh para filsuf dinasti Sung memberikan figur yang disebut Sien-tien. Shen-nung, yang kedua dari Lima Kaisar, ditahan untuk dikalikan delapan Kwa asli Fu-hi. Membentuk enam puluh empat heksagram. This number multiplied by six gives 384, the maximum to which the calculations can be carried practically, though it is stated that a series of 16,777,216 different forms can be obtained. The two principles forming the Tai-ki were sometimes represented by two opposite semi-circles in a circle, the two portions of the circle in dark and clear respectively later on a dark disk was inserted in the clear portion and a clear disk in the dark portions. The male and female principles may also be represented by a circle and a square for instance at Peking the Temple of Heaven is circular while the Temple of Earth is square the common coin called cash being round with a square hole in the centre is a perfect symbol of Heaven and Earth. The doctrine of Confucius and his school is contained in the classical books called King. Five of the classics of the highest grade include: (1) The Y-king (Book of Changes ) with 24,107 characters (2) the Shu-king (Book of History ) in fifty-eight chapters with 25,700 characters extends from the Emperors Yao and Shun to Ping Wang of the Chou dynasty (720 B. C.) (3) the She-king (Book of Odes) with 39,234 characters, a collection of popular poetry used in the petty states of China, collected and arranged by Confucius (4) the Li-ki (Book of Rites ) in forty-nine chapters (including the Ta-hio and the Chung-yung,) 99,010 characters (5) the Chun-tsew (Spring and Autumn), or the annals of Lu. the native state of Confucius. from 722 to 484 B. C. The Yo-king (Book of Music ) was lost. Next came the lesser King: (1) the Sze-shu (Four Books ), Ta-hio (Great Study), Chung-yung (Invariable Medium ), Lun-yu (miscellaneous conversations between Confucius and his disciples ), and Meng-tze, the conversation of the sage Mencius (34,685 characters with the commentary 209,749) (2) the two rituals. I-li and Chou-li (45,806 characters) (3) the Hiao-king (Book of Filial Piety with 1903 characters) (4) the three ancient commentators of the Chun-tsew: Tso-shi, Kung-yang, and Ku-liang (5) the Eul-ya (Library Exposition ), a dictionary of terms used in the classical writing of the same period. It must be borne in mind that Confucius was an administrator. a statesman, in a word, a practical man. as well as a moralist, but not entirely devoid of originality. The most distinguished followers of Confucius (b. 551 d. 479 B. C.) were Tsang-shen (506 B. C.) and Meng-tze (Mencius. 372-289 B. C.). The rival of Confucius was Lao-tze, or Lao-kiun, a far deeper philosopher. author of the Tao-teh-king and of the Kan-ying-pien, with his disciples. Kang-sang-tze (570-43 B. C.), Li-tze (500 B. C.), and Wen-tze (500 B. C.). The heterodox philosophers were Meh-ti (450 B. C.) and Yang-chu (450 B. C.) the Taoists. Chwang-tze (330 B. C.) and Hwai-nan-tze (second century B. C.). Mention should also be made of Wang-chung, author of the Lun-heacuteng (first century A. D.), Han-yu, or Han Wen-Kung (A. D. 768-824), and finally, under the Sung. the reformer Wang Ngan-shi (1021-86) and the illustrious Chu-hi (A. D. 1130-1200). State religions The three state religions of China ( San-kiao or three doctrines ), are Confucianism. Taoism. and Buddhism .-- Confucianism or Ju-kiao (a name adopted by the disciples of Chu-hi in in A. D. 1150) is the religion of the literati from the moral principles taken from the books arranged by Confucius a state religion has been created the Trinity ( San-tsai ), Heaven. Earth, and Man is represented by the emperor, Tien-tze . Son of Heaven. the high-priest of the cult who pays his homage at the winter solstice at midnight and to the earth at the summer solstice. The state worship includes three grades of sacrifices. the victims being things, though persons are not excluded: (1) the great sacrifices offered only to Tien (Heaven ), Ti (Earth), Tai Miao (the great temple of ancestors) and Shieh-tsi (gods of the land and grain) (2) the medium sacrifices. an homage to the sun, the moon, the names of emperors and kings of foreign dynasties, Confucius. the ancient patrons of agriculture and silk, the gods of heaven. earth, and the cyclic year (3) the inferior sacrifices ( Kiun-sze . crowd of sacrifices ) offered to the patron of medicine. the spirits of celebrated men. the clouds, rain, wind, and thunder, the five celebrated mountains, the four seas, four rivers, etc. The supreme ruler of heaven is Shiang-ti. There is no priesthood in Confucianism. Taoism, or Tao-kiao . was invented by the disciples of Lao-tze, but the lofty theories of this philosopher have denigrated to the grossest superstitions. alchemy. astrology. and a worship of a pantheon of idols. the highest of which is Yu-hwang Shang-ti the chief of the Taoists resides at Lung-hu-shan (Kiang-si) most of the hierarchy are extremely ignorant. Buddhism, or Fo-kiao . the religion of Fo (Buddha) comes from India it is said to have reached China in 221 or 219 B. C. but this is hardly probable. The first certain fact regarding Chinese Buddhism is that it was orally taught in the year 2 B. C. to an ambassador of the Emperor Ngai by the Ta Yue-chi or Indo-Scythians it was officially recognized by the emperor Ming-ti (A. D. 61). The search for manuscripts in India led pilgrims like Fa-hian and Sung-yun ( Fo-kwo-ki ), Hwei-shin, the celebrated Hiuan-tsang (seventh century), I-tsing, Wang-Hiuan-tse, Wu-kung and others to undertake long voyages which have thrown great light on the geography of Northern India and Central Asia. In spite of their exertions and of the numerous manuscripts they brought home, it was not until 1410 that the Chinese procured a complete copy of the Buddhist canon some of the Buddhist sanctuaries are famous places of pilgrimage. the island of Pu-tu (Chu-san), the Wu Tai-shan (Shan-si) the Omei-shan (Sze-chan), the Dokerla (Yun-nan). The Buddhist priests gather in monasteries the superiors of a district or a prefecture are called Seng-lu-tze they are selected from the leading abbots ( fang-chang ) besides the superiors ( Seng-kang, Seng-chen, Seng-hwei ), there are preceptors, preachers, expositors, and clerks. Buddhism. with its numerous monks. is the most popular religion of China, though a member of one sect very often borrows practices from the others cults and, if an official, will invariably perform the ceremonies of Confucianism. Whatever be the importance of these three religions. they are insignificant compared to the real, national religion of all Chinese 151 ancestor-worship. Ancestor worship originated in filial piety which, being of paramount importance in the eyes of the Chinese, is the object of a special book, the Hiao-king. Filial piety. however, is not a natural. spontaneous feeling, but a well-defined duty. embracing the obligations towards the emperor, princes, officials, parents. and these vary according to the classes and people. In every house there is a tablet, if not a room a rich family has a separate building this is the hall of ancestors the tablets are called pai-wei and the temples tze-tang . During the period called tsing-ming . in the first part of April, a general worship of ancestors takes place in the form of libations, and the burning of candles. paper and incense this cult was prohibited the Christians by a Bull of 1742. Another great and popular superstition is Fung-shui (wind and water). To describe this is impossible, though it is the daily guide in a Chinamans life. It is a system of geomancy founded on the Y-king, systematized in the twelfth century the date of a marriage. the proper place for a burial ground, a lucky site for a building, etc. the settlement of all these questions depends on the laws of Fung-shui laid down by the professors, who besides a knowledge of Buddhist and Taoist doctrines. had some superficial ideas regarding natural science. medicine. and astronomy. Foreign relations Some commentators have found China in this passage of Isaias (49:12 ): these from the land of Sinim. Ptolemy divides Eastern Asia into the country of Sinaelig and Serice, north of Sinaelig, with its chief city Sera. Strabo, Virgil, Horace, Pomponius Mela. Pliny, and Ammianus, speak of the Seres . and they are mentioned by Florence among the nations which sent special embassies to Rome at the time of Augustus. The Chinese call the eastern part of the Roman Empire (Syria, Egypt. and Asia Minor ) Ta Tsin. Fu-lin during the Middle Ages. The monk Cosmos had a correct idea of the position of China (sixth century. The Byzantine writer, Theophylactus Simocatta (seventh century) gave an account of China under the name Taugas . There is a Chinese record of a Roman embassy in A. D. 166. The sea voyages of Arabs and the pilgrimages of Chinese Buddhists have thrown considerable light on the geography of Asia during the Middle Ages. The voyage of Vasco da Gama (1497) and the capture of Malacca by Albuquerque opened the Far East to the Portuguese. who arrived in Canton in 1514 Perestrello came in 1516 Ferniumlo Perez de Andrade followed in 1517 with Thomas Pires. but the misconduct of Simon de Andrade caused the expulsion of the Portuguese from Canton (1521) and the destruction of the fleet of Cautinho (1522) the Portuguese establishment of Liampo (1545) and Chang-chou (1549) were completely destroyed, and the inhabitants massacred. Finally, the Portuguese settled on the island of Hiang-shan at Macao. either in 1553 or 1557. The Dutch commander Cornellus Reyersz took the Pescadore Islands in 1624 but after an agreement made with the Chinese (19 Feb. 1625), Martin Sonk, the governor, transferred the Dutch colony to Tai-wan (Formosa), where it was captured by the Chinese pirate, Koxinga (1661). The capture in 1592 of the Portuguese Carrack, Madre de Dios, gave the English the secret of the East-Indian Trade. In 1596, three ships, the Bear, the Bears Whelp, and the Benjamin. under the command of Benjamin Wood. were fitted out at the expense of Robert Dudley, and Queen Elizabeth wrote a letter (16 July) to the Emperor of China. The first English vessel that visited China reached there by accident. It was the Unicorn which, going from Bantam to Japan. was cast by a storm on the east coast of Macao. at the end of June, 1620. In 1634 Captain Weddell explored the Canton River. The first English company organized for the purpose of trading with India. commonly called the Old Company was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, 31 Dec. 1600, under the title The Govenour and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies. The English Company (or General Society ) trading into the East Indies also called the New Company was incorporated by William III, 5 Sept. 1698, and the two were amalgamated in 1708-9 by Queen Anne, under the title of The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies , commonly known as the Honourable East India Company. The Russians crossed the Ural mountains in the middle of the sixteenth century under Ivan IV and subjugated Siberia from the Lena River they passed, in 1642, into the basin of Amur. Stephanof, one of their chiefs, met the Chinese for the first time in 1654, when exploring the Sungari River. After withstanding two sieges of their principal fort, Albasin. the Russians signed a treaty with the Chinese at Nerchinsk (27 Aug. 1689), which destroyed their influence in the region of Amur, and from which they did not recover until the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1727 Count Sava Vladislavitch signed a treaty regulating the inland trade between the two countries. In 1660 the French organized a Compagnie de Chine which in 1664 was amalgamated with the Compagnie des Indes which gave up its China privileges in 1697-98 to Compagnie Jourdan. la Coulange et Cie, which made Canton a trading centre. New companies were organized for the commerce of China in October, 1705, and November, 1712. Finally, in 1719, all the companies were merged into the Compagnie des Indes, whose privilege was suspended in 1769, and which was finally dissolved, 3 April, 1790. A French consulate was established at Canton 3 Feb. 1776. The Danes had two companies organized in 1612 and 1670. Austria was represented by the Ostend Company, incorporated 17 Dec. 1722, and the Triest Company. Prussia had the Emden Company. In 1627 a Swedish company was organized in 1655 Nils Matson Kioumlping visited China. On 14 June, 1731, a charter was granted by King Frederick of Sweden to a company organized at Gothenburg. The first American commercial expedition to China was undertaken by the Empress of China, a vessel commanded by John Green, which sailed from New York for Canton, 22 Feb. 1784. Trading was carried on at Canton through privileged merchants called Hong merchants, whose council. called Co-hong . was incorporated in 1720. Their number carried, but never exceeded thirteen. The foreign merchants traded in thirteen hongs . or factories, extending about 300 feet from the banks of the Pearl River, and about 1000 broad. The Hong merchants, hard pressed by the Hoppo . or custom mandarin, ran into debt with the foreign merchants. A visit of Commodore Anson (1742), a special mission of Captain Panton, even a transfer to another part of the empire, did not remedy the numerous grievances of the Europeans. who were not allowed to reside permanently at Canton, but were compelled to retire to Macao when business was done. The English sent an embassy, headed by Lord Macartney. in the Lion and the Hindostan. Macartney reached Peking 21 Aug. 1793, but did not obtain permission for the English to trade at Chusan. Ning-po. and Tien-tsin, or to have a warehouse at Peking for their goods. Macartneys voyage cost uacute80,000 (about 380,000), but was without result. Still less successful was the embassy of Lord Amherst (1816). Lord Napier, who was sent on special mission in 1833-4, died worn out by his negotiations. Grievances continued to increase year after year, until the destruction (June, 1839) of 20,283 chests of opium by Commander Lin brought matters to a climax. On 9 June, 1840, a blockade of the Canton River was proclaimed by Admiral Sir John Gordon Bremer. Ting-hai (Chusan) was captured, 7 July, 1841. Sir Henry Pottinger was now appointed plenipotentiary, and Sir William Parker commander-in-chief. Amoy was captured 27 August, Ning-po 13 Oct. 1841, Shanghai, 16 June, 1842, and the British squadron entered the Ta-kiang (Yang-tze). Finally a treaty of thirteen articles was signed at Nan-king by Pottinger and Ki-yang, 29 August, 1842, on board the Cornwallis. Canton, Amoy. Fu-chou, Ning-po. and Shanghai were to be opened to trade, and consuls appointed to reside at each of these cities. The island of Hong-Kong was ceded to Great Britain, and indemnities were paid: 6,000,000 for the opium seized, 12,000,000 for the expenses of war. and 3,000,000 for the debts of the Hong merchants, whose guild was abolished. The United States and France followed the example of Great Britain. A treaty was signed with the United States at Wang-hia, near Macao. 3 July, 1844, by Caleb Cushing, and one with France by Theacuteodose de Lagreneacute at Wham-poa. 24 Oct. 1844. An agreement with Belgium was signed at Canton, 25 July, 1845, and a treaty with Norway and Sweden. 20 March, 1847. The Chusan Archipelago was surrendered to the Chinese in 1847 by Sir John F. Davis, Governor of Hong-Kong. Hong-Kong had been declared a free port, 6 Feb. 1842 to the great damage of Macao. The advantages, however, obtained through the treaty of Nan-king were soon found insufficient. The murder of the French priest Chapdelaine in Kwang-si (26 Feb. 1856) and the seizure at Canton of the lorcha Arrow (8 Oct. 1856) by the Chinese furnished the pretext for a joint action of England and France against China. The bombardment of Canton (27-29 Oct, 1856), the great rebellion in India (May, 1857), the appointment of Lord Elgin and Baron Gros as envoys to China by the two belligerents, the capture of Canton (29 Dec. 1857) and of the Taku forts (20 May, 1858), are the chief events which preceded the signing of the English (26 June) and French (27 June, 1858) treaties of Tien-tsin. These treaties permitted the appointment of French and English ambassadors to Peking. and allowed the Chinese a like privilege of appointing ambassadors at the Court of St. James and the court of Paris. provided for the opening of the ports of New-chwang. Tang-chou (Che-fu), Tai-wan (Formosa), Chao-chou (Swatow), and Kiung-chou (Hai-nan), granted an indemnity of 2,000,000 taels for damages to the British and a like sum to both powers for war expenses, besides an indemnity to French subjects for the loss sustained through plunder, when Canton was taken, and guaranteed the punishment of the murderer of Father Chapdelaine. On the 25th of June, 1859, the plenipotentiaries, Bruce and Bourboulon, who were on their way to Peking to have these treaties ratified, were fired upon by the Taku forts. A second war ensued. Elgin and Gros were appointed special envoys to China Sir Hope Grant and Admiral Hope. General de Mountauban and Admiral Charner were placed in command of the British and French land and naval forces. The forts of Taku were recaptured (21 Aug. 1860). The allies marched passed Tien-tsin, and after withstanding a treacherous attack by the Chinese at Tung-chou (18 Sept. 1860), they forced a passage across the Pa-li-kiao bridge (21 Sept.), and captured the Summer Palace (Yuan-ming-yuan), 6 Oct. which was plundered. Wan-shou-shan, another part of the imperial summer resort, was burnt by order of Lord Elgin (18 Oct.) on account of the barbarous treatment inflicted upon the European prisoners taken in the dastardly attack at Tung-chou. The emperor fled to Shehol, and his brother, Prince Kung, who had remained at Peking. signed the Conventions of 24 and 25 Oct. 1860, with the allies. The indemnity was raised to 8,000,000 taels, and Kow-loon. opposite Hong-Kong. was ceded to England as a dependency of this island. A like indemnity was to be paid to France. and Tien-tsin was to be opened to trade. Meanwhile a treaty had been made at Tien-tsin with the United States (18 June, 1858), signed by William B. Reed. and one with Russia (13 June, 1858) signed by Admiral Putiatin, and another treaty was made with Russia at Peking (9-14 Nov. 1860), and signed by General Ignatiev. A still earlier treaty had been made with Russia at Aigun (18 May, 1858) and signed by Muraviev. The final result of these various treaties was a rectification of the frontier between Russia and China, the Amur and Usuri rivers forming the new boundary lines. The wretched Hien Fung. who had replaced Tao-kwang in 1851, died 22 Aug. 1861, and was succeeded by his son Tung-chi (b. 17 Nov. 1834), under the regency of the two dowager empresses, Tze-ngan and Tze-hi. and Prince Kung. With the help of foreigners, the American. Ward, the English general, Gordon, and the Ever Victorious Army, the French admiral Protet. Lebrethon, and others, the Tai-ping rebels, who had captured Nan-king (19 March, 1853) and made a raid on Tien-tsin, were expelled from Su-chou (4 Dec. 1863) and Nan-king (19 July, 1864), and their power completely destroyed. Treaties were signed with Prussia and the German States (Tien-tsin, 2 Sept. 1861), Portugal (Tien-tsin, 13 Aug. 1862), though not ratified, Denmark (Tien-tsin, 13 July, 1863), Spain (Tien-tsin, 10 Oct, 1864), Holland (Tien-tsin, 6 Oct. 1863), Belgium (Peking, 2 Oct. 1865), Italy (26 Oct. 1866), and Austria (Peking, 2 Oct. 1869). A new convention, negotiated by the British minister. Sir Rutherford Alcock. (Peking, 23 Oct. 1869), was not ratified by the British Government. In 1868, a special embassy headed by Anson Burlingame. formerly American Minister to Peking. was sent to the Western countries. They went first to the United States. and additional articles to the Treaty of 1858 were signed at Washington (28 July, 1868) thence they proceeded through Europe. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg. A few months afterward news was received of the awful massacre of French and Russian subjects by the Chinese at Tien-tsin, 21 June, 1870. A mission under Chung-hou was sent to Versailles to apologize for this. Tung-chi married. Oct. 1872, and being of age, received in audience the foreign envoys Japan. France. Great Britain. Russia. the United States and Holland were represented by their ministers. and Germany by an interpreter (29 June, 1873). Relations were strained between Japan and China, owing to an attack made by the aborigines of southern Formosa on the wrecked crew of a Luchuan junk. and for a time war seemed inevitable. Through British intervention however, satisfaction was obtained by Japan. and an agreement between the two Asiatic nations was signed at Peking. 31 Oct. 1874. Tung-chi died 12 Jan, 1875. The situation in China at this time presented many difficulties. There were grave questions to be settled with England. Russia. and France. On 21 Feb. 1875, the English interpreter, A. R. Margary. was murdered at Manwyne (Yun-nan), and an attack was made on the British exploring party from Burma headed by Colonel Horace A. Browne. which Margary had preceded. Protracted and knotty negotiations conducted by the British minister. Thomas F. Wade. led to the conclusion of the convention signed at Che-fu, 13 Sept. 1876. According to this: regulations were to be framed for the frontier trade of Yun-nan British officials were to be stationed at Ta-li. or some other suitable place in Yun-nan. for a period of five years the viceroy of India was given permission to send a mission to this province the indemnity was fixed at 200,000 taels China was to establish missions and consulates abroad the ports of Ichang, Wu-hu. Wen-chou. and Pak-hoi were to be opened to trade British officers might be sent to Chung-king which was to be opened to trade when steamers succeeded in ascending the river. A special mission, including Hon. G. T. Grosvenor, A. Davenport. and E. C. Baber, was sent to Yun-nan to witness the trial and the punishment of the murderers of Margary. On 28 August 1875, Kwo Sung-tao was appointed envoy extraordinary to the Court of St. James. The Russians. who had signed a treaty with China, 25 July, 1851, at Kuldja. took possession of this region (4 July, 1871), during the rebellion of Yakub. When the Mohammedan rising was crushed by Tso Tsung-tang (1877-78), China claimed the territory occupied temporarily by Russia. A special Chinese mission with Chung-hou as chief was sent to Russia and concluded a treaty at Livadia (Oct. 1879). The contested territory was ceded, together with the Muzart Pass, to Russia. and great inland commercial facilities were also granted to Muscovite merchants. Chung-hou was denounced by the censor. Chang Chi-tung. and sentenced to death his treaty came to nought. It was a casus belli . but the intervention of England and France prevented the war. Tseng Kai-tze, the Chinese minister in Paris. was sent to St. Petersburg. where he signed a treaty restoring to China the greater part of the Ili and the Muzart Pass (12-24 Feb. 1881). The third difficulty arose through the occupation of Tong-king by France. China interfered, as the suzerain power of Annam. A treaty was signed at Tien-tsin by Commodore Fournier (11 May, 1884), but was soon followed by the Bac-leacute affair (23 June, 1884), and hostilities were resumed. Admiral Courbet bombarded the Fu-chou arsenal (23 Aug. 1884) Ki-lung in northern Formosa was captured (1 Oct. 1884) the Pescadores were taken (29 March, 1885) finally the Billot-Campbell peace protocol. signed in Paris (4 April, 1885), was followed by a treaty signed at Tien-tsin (9 June, 1885) by Patenocirctre, minister. a commercial convention (Tien-tsin, 25 April, 1886) by Cogoirdan, minister. and an additional convention (26 June, 1887), under Constans, minister. France retained possession of Tong-king. Emperor Kwang Siu came of age 7 Feb. 1887, and took control of the government, 4 March, 1889. On 26 Feb. 1889, he married Ye-ho-na-la-shi, daughter of Kwei-siang. The imperial audience took place 5 March, 1891. For a long time, matters had gone from bad to worse between China and Japan. Korea being the coveted prey of both nations. The murder of the Korean Kim-ok Kyum, a friend of the Japanese. by his countryman, Hung Tjung-wu, at Shang-hai (28 March, 1894), and the attack made on the steamship, Kow-shin by the Japanese at the mouth of the Ya-lu River (25 July, 1894) were the starting points of a war. The principal events during the course of this war were: the battle of Sei-kwan (29 July 1894) a declaration of war (1 Aug.) a convention between Korea and Japan (26 Aug.) the battles of Ping-yang (16 Sept.), and the Ya-lu (17 Sept.) the capture of Port Arthur (21 Nov.) and Wei-hai-wei (30 Jan. 1895) by the Japanese the occupation of New-chwang by the Japanese (6 March) the landing of the Japanese at Formosa. The negotiations between Li Hung-chang, who had been wounded by a fanatic Japanese. and Ito and Mutsu, resulted in the signing of the treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April, 1895). The principle articles of this treaty were the cession of Liao-tung, Formosa, and the Pescadores to the Japanese. an indemnity of 200,000,000 Kuping taels to be paid by China, the opening to Japanese trade of Sha-shi or Kin-chow (Hu-pe), Chung-king, Su-chou, and Hang-chou, etc. On the interference of France. Russia. and Germany. Liao-tung was retroceded to China by the convention of 8 Nov. 1905. Korea fell entirely into the hands of the Japanese. Ostensibly to obtain satisfaction for the murder of two missionaries. the Germans seized Kiao-chou Bay (Shan-tung) (14 Nov. 1897), which was granted to them on long lease (6 March, 1898). Following the example of Germany. Russia obtained a similar lease of Ta-lien-wa and the adjacent waters (27 March 1898) England. Wei-hai-wei (2 April, 1898) France. Kwang-chou-wan (27 May, 1898). On 9 June the territory of Kow-loon ceded to Great Britain was extended to include Deep Bay and Mirs Bay moreover, various declarations stipulated the non-alienation by China of the Yang-tze valley (11 Feb. 1898) and Fu-kien (April, 1898). Prince Kung died, 29 May 1898. From 10 June, 1898, until 20 Sept. 1898, when a coup deacutetat of Empress Tze-hi deprived Emperor Kwang Siu of all his power, he made a strong attempt to reform the administration of his empire with the assistance of Kang Yu-wei and others. There followed a terrible reaction, which culminated in the Boxer rebellion. This began in Shang-tung and extended to Chi-li, secretly fostered by the empress dowager and her camarilla, Prince Twan, and General Tung Fu-siang. Everywhere missionaries were murdered. The German minister. Von Ketteler. was murdered (20 June) the legations at Peking were besieged by troops and the infuriated mob. A relief column. under the command of the English admiral, Sir Edward Seymore, failed to reach the capital. Finally a strong international army entered Peking (14 August, 1900), relieving the legations and the Catholic cathedral (Pe-tang), while the emperor, the empress dowager, and the court fled top Si-ngan-fu (Shen-si). Peking was looted and left in ruins. The negotiations were long and involved, and on their completion a protocol was signed at Peking. 7 Sept. 1901, by the representatives of the ten foreign powers. The principal clauses included: a mission of expiation to Berlin and an expiatory monument to Baron von Ketteler on the spot where he was murdered the rehabilitation of officials executed for being favorable to foreigners the suspension of official examinations for five years in all cities where foreigners had been massacred or mistreated missions of reparation to Japan for the assassination of Sugiyama of the Japanese legation expiatory monuments in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated prohibition of the importation of arms a total indemnity of 450,000,000 Haikwan taels (about 360,000,000) special quarters for the legations at Peking the destruction of the forts at Taku the reorganization of the foreign offices. An imperial edict of 24 July, 1901, transformed the Tsung-li Yamen into a Ministry of Foreign affairs (Wai-wu Pu), which takes precedence over the other ministries of State. Treaties were signed at Shang-hai by China with Great Britain (5 Sept. 1902), with Japan (commercial, 8 Oct. 1903), and with the United States for the extension of commercial relations (8 Oct. 1903). The great victories gained by Japan over Russia and the signing of the treaty of Portsmouth (23 Aug. 5 Sept. 1905), the various agreements signed by the European nations with the victorious power, the tremendous effects produced on all Asiatic peoples by the triumph of one of them, the latent discontent in China, the delusive and superficial attempts at reform in the Middle kingdom. leave to the future prospects which are anything but encouraging to the Western counties. The imperial maritime customs were started in Shanghai in 1854 when, threatened by rebels, the collection of dues on foreign trade became impossible. Representatives of the three consuls from Great Britain, France. and the United States. were placed in charge of the custom service, which was inaugurated 12 July, 1854. The American and French delegates having retired in the course of years, the British delegate, Horatio N. lay. remained in charge until he was superseded in Nov. 1863, as inspector general, by Robert Hart (b. 20 Feb. 1835, at Portsdown, Ireland ). The Shanghai system was extended to Canton (Oct. 1859) and afterwards to the other treaty ports. The importance of the service has grown with years and now includes also the postal service. It is divided into four departments: (1) revenue department (Indoor, Outdoor, and Coast staff ), with 957 foreigners of various nationalities, the majority being British. and 4138 Chinese (1903) (2) marine department (3) educational department (4) postal department. An imperial decree of 9 May, 1905, placed at the head of the custom service two high mandarins. At the end of 1906, 2096 localities were opened to postal business, and in 1907 the number of articles dealt with increased to nearly 113 millions. The number of parcels reached 1,383,000, and money transactions taels 1,539,000. Moreover, there are some foreign (British, German. French. Japanese. American. Russian ) postal agencies at some of the treaty ports. On 6 Nov. 1906, a new Chinese ministry was created. styled the Yu-chwan Pu (Board of Posts and Communications ) with a president and two vice-presidents. Telegraph system In 1905 the Imperial Company had 375 stations throughout China, Manchuria. and Mongolia. Other companies are the Imperial German Telegraph Co. through Shanghai, Tsing-tao, and Che-fu the French Telegraph Co. from Amoy to Tourane the Great Northern Telegraph Co. through Shanghai, Gutzlaff. Nagasaki. Vladivostok. Amoy. and Hong-Kong the Eastern Extension. Australasia and China Telegraph Co. connecting Shanghai, Gutzlaff. Fu-chou, Hong-Kong. Indo-China. and the Philippines the Deutsch-Niederlegravendische Telegraphengesellschaft, three cables connecting Yap (Carolines) and Shanghai, Menado (Celebes), and Guam (Mariannes) the Commercial Pacific Cable Co. connecting San Francisco. Honolulu, Midway. Guam, Manila. and Shanghai with a branch line between Guam and Yokohama the Japanese Telegraph Co. connecting Sharp Peak (Fu-chou), Formosa, Ishigakishima, Naha, Oshima. Japan. and Korea. The revenues of the customs in 1906 was Haikwan taels 36,068,595 (1 Haikwan tael 0.80, U. S.), as against Haikwan taels 22,742,104 in 1897. It included import duties tls. 9,825, 706 export duties tls. 9,825,706 coast trade duties. tls. 2,208,192 tonnage dues, tls. 1,326,619 transit dues incoming, tls. 1,831,934 transit dues outgoing, tls. 445,167 opium Likin, tls. 4,330,083. The gross value of the foreign trade was Hk. tls. 682,767,231 in 1906, as against Hk. tls. 385,142,721 in 1897, the net value being Hk. tls. 646,726,821, as against tls. 366,329,983 in 1897. The value of the direct trade: Continent of Europe (Russia excepted), tls. 82,677,826 Russian European ports, tls. 5,757,036 Russia and Siberia by land frontier, tls. 2,565,904 Russia, Pacific ports, tls. 11,018, 087 Korea, tls. 1,811,037 Japan (including Formosa), tls. 94,357,287 Philippine islands, tls. 2,536,704 Canada, tls. 5,192,127 United States, including Hawaii. tls. 70,107,657 Mexico and Central America (including Panama ), tls. 54,142 South America, tls. 27,309 Australia, New Zealand. etc. tls. 1,014,469 South Africa (including Maritius ), tls. 58,136, a total of tls. 646,726, 821 (net imports, tls. 410,270,082 exports tls. 236,456,739). The chief imports are: opium, tls. 32,285,377 (weighing 54,225 piculs) cotton goods. tls. 152,727,845 woollen and cotton mixtures, tls. 2,269,812 woollen goods. tls. 4,382,958 miscellaneous piece goods. tls. 3,062,711 copper, iron, steel, etc. tls. 17,289,855 cigarettes, tls. 408,081 fish and fishery products, tls. 8,125,721 flour, tls. 6,295,753 matches, tls. 5,139,808 machinery, tls. 5,730,221 medicines, tls. 2,137,134, etc. The chief exports are: beancake, tls. 3,158,394 beans, tls. 3,158,394 bristles, tls. 2,756,262 camphor, tls. 1,310,791 cattle, tls. 3,357,924 raw cotton, tls. 11,631,138 fire-crackers, tls. 3,585,733 matting, tls. 3,064,458 medicines, tls. 2,430,322 raw white silk, tls. 16,485,481 steam filature raw white silk, tls. 29,614,4498 yellow silk, tls. 3,214,873 wild silk, tls. 6,372,970 silk cocoons, tls. 1,089,873 silk waste, tls. 3,208,162 silk cocoons, refuse, tls. 450,254 silk piece goods. tls. 8,474,750 Shang-tung pongees, tls. 1,279,104 silk products, unclassed. tls. 1,105,610 undressed skins and hides of cows and buffaloes, tls. 5,491,908 of horses, asses, and mules, tls. 5,129 of goats, tls. 4,382,138 sheep, tls. 476,567 unclassed, tls. 33,509 straw braid, tls. 8,650,861 vegetable tallow, tls. 1,057,401 black tea, tls. 12,252,518 green tea, tls. 7,645,121 black brick tea, tls. 4,392,064 green brick tea, tls. 2,083,641 tea tablet, tls. 254,958 tea dust, tls. 1028 sheeps wool, 4,847,015 tls. chinaware, tls. 1,579,204, etc. In 1906, 87,949 steamers (70,117,628 tons), and 120,598 sailing vessels (5,702,260 tons), in all 208,547 vessels (75,819,888 tons) entered and cleared Chinese ports, of which Chinese shipping vessels (foreign type ) numbered 45,847 (12,212,373 tons), Chinese junks 93,457 (3,974,378 tons), British 28,192 (33,450,560 tons), Japanese 25,108 (11,376,430 tons), French 5514 (3,125,749 tons), German 6315 (7,477,518 tons), American 582 (1,351,200 tons), Norwegian 1978 (1,616,460 tons), Danish 108 (172,826 tons), Swedish 75 (65,992 tons), etc. Treaty ports Northern ports (1) New-chwang. Shen-king province, Manchuria. in accordance with British Treaty of Tien-tsin, 1858 custom office opened 9 May, 1864 Chinese population, 74,000. (2) Ching-wang-tao, Chi-li, Manchuria. in accordance with imperial decree. 31 March, 1898 opened 15 Dec. 1901 Chinese population, 5,000. (3) Tien-tsin, Chi-li, in accordance with British and French Peking Conventions. 1860 opened May, 1861 Chinese population, 750,000. (4) Che-fu, Shang-tung, in accordance with British and French treaties of Tien-tsin, 1858 opened March, 1862 Chinese population, 100,000. (5) Kiao-chou. Shang-tung, German Convention, 6 March, 1898 opened 1 July, 1899. Yang-tze ports (6) Chung-king. Sze-chwan opened Nov. 1890 Chinese population, 702,000. (7) I-chang, Hu-pe, in accordance with Che-fu Convention, 1876 opened 1 April, 1877 Chinese population, 50,000. (8) Sha-shi. Hu-pe, treaty of Shimoneseki, 1895 opened 1 October, 1876 Chinese population, 85,000. (9) Chang-sha. Hu-nan, opened 1 July, 1904 Chinese population, 230,000. (10) Yo-chou. Hu-nan, imperial decree of 31 March, 1898 opened 13 Nov. 1899 Chinese population, 20,000. (11) Han-kou. Hu-pe, provincial regulations, 1861 opened Jan. 1862 Chinese population, 530,000. (12) Kiu-kiang. Kiang-si. same regulations opened Jan. 1862 Chinese population, 36,000. (13) Wu-hu. Ngan-hwei. Che-fu Convention, 1876 opened 1 April, 1877 Chinese population, 123,000. (14) Nan-king, Kiang-su, French Treaty of Tien-tsin, 1858 opened 1 May, 1899 Chinese population, 261,000. (15) Chin-kiang. Kiang-su, British Treaty, 1858 opened April, 1861 Chinese population, 170,000. Central ports (16) Shanghai, Kiang-su, Nan-king Treaty, 1842 opened officially 17 Nov. 1843 Chinese population, 651,000. (17) Su-chou, Kiang-su, Shimonoseki Treaty opened 26 Sept. 1896 Chinese population 500,000. (18) Hang-chou, Che-kiang, Shimonoseki Treaty opened 26 Sept. 1896 Chinese population 350,000. (19) Ning-po. Shimonoseki Treaty opened 26 Sept. 1896 Chinese population 500,000. (20) Wen-chou. Che-kiang, Che-Fu Convention, 1876 opened April, 1877 Chinese population, 80,000. South Coast ports (21) San-tuao, Fu-kien, imperial decree of 31 March, 1898 opened 1 May, 1899 Chinese population 8000. (22) Fu-chou, Fu-kien, Nan-king Treaty, 1842 opened July, 1861 Chinese population 624,000. (23) Amoy. Fu-kien, Nan-king Treaty, 1842 opened April, 1862 Chinese population 114,000. (24) Swatow. Kwang-tung. English. French. and American Treaty of Tien-tsin, 1858 opened Jan. 1860 Chinese population 65,000. (25) Canton, Kwang-tung. Nan-king Treaty, 1842 opened Oct. 1859 Chinese population 900,000. (26) Kow-loon. Kwang-tung opened April, 1887 (27) Lappa. Kwang-tung opened 27 June, 1871 (28) Kong-moon, Kwang-tung opened 7 March, 1904 Chinese population, 55,000. (29) San-shui, Kwang-tung Anglo-Chinese Convention, 4 Feb. 1897 opened 4 June, 1897 Chinese population, 5000. (30) Wu-chou. Kwang-si same convention opened 4 June, 1897 Chinese population, 59,000. (31) Kiung-chou (Hoy-hou), Hai-nan. Kwang-tung French. and English Treaties of Tien-tsin, 1858 opened April, 1876 Chinese population, 38,000. (32) Pak-hoi. Kwang-tung Che-fu Convention, 1876 opened April, 1877 Chinese population, 20,000. Frontier ports (33) Lung-chou. Kwang-si French Treaty, 25 June, 1887 opened 1 June, 1899 Chinese population, 12,000. (34) Meng-tze, Yun-nan French Treaty, 1887 opened 30 April, 1889 Chinese population, 15,000. (35) Sze-mao. Yun-nan French Convention, 1895 British, 1896 opened 2 Jan, 1897 Chinese population, 15,000. (36) Ten-yueh or Momein. Yun-nan Convention of 4 Feb. 1897 opened 8 May, 1902 Chinese population, 10,000. (37) Ya-tung, Tibet opened 1 May, 1894. As yet, Nan-ning. Kwang-si. opened by imperial decree. 3 Feb. 1899, has not a customs office. According to the customs statistics (1906), 6,917,000 Chinese inhabit the treaty ports. The foreign population includes 1837 firms and 38,597 persons (American 3447, British 9356, Japanese 15,548, French 2189, German 1939, Portuguese 3184, Italians 786, Spaniards 389, Belgians 297, Austrians 236, Russians 273, Danes 209, Dutch 225, Brazilians 16, Koreans 47, Norwegians 185, Swedes 135, subjects of non-treaty powers 236). The first railroad was built in 1876, from Wu-sung to Shanghai, but was purchased by the Chinese and taken by them to Formosa in 1877. The following is a list of the railways completed and under construction at the end of 1906: in Manchuria (1) from Irkutsk through Manchuria through Manchuria. Harbin. Pogranichaya to Vladivostock. 925 miles (2) from Harbin to Kwang-cheng-tse (not completed), 147 miles (3) from Kwang-cheng-tse through Mukden, Sinmin-fu, Liao-yang. New-chwang. Talien. to Port Arthur. 481 miles (in addition to 36 miles under construction) (4) from Mukden and An-tung (narrow gauge), 187 miles under construction (5) from Kow-pang-tze to Sin-min-fu, 70 miles. Chi-li and Manchuria. Peking through Tien-tsin, Shan-hai-kwan. Kow-pang-tse, to New-chwang. 600 miles. Chi-li: Peking to Tung-chou. 13 miles. Chi-li and Mongolia. Peking through Nan-kou, to Kalgan. 33 miles (in addition to 92 miles under construction. Chi-li, Ho-nan, and Hu-pe: Peking through Pao-ting-fu. Cheng-ting. Wei-hwei. Cheng-chou to Han-kou. 754 miles. Ho-nan: Tao-kou. through Wei-hwei. to Ching-hwa, 93 miles. Chi-li and Shan-si. Chen-ting to Tai-yuan-fu. 87 miles (in addition to 68 under construction). Ho-nan: Kai-feng, through Cheng-chou. to Ho-nan-fu. 41 miles (in addition to 75 miles under construction). Shan-tung. Tsing-chou through Tsi-nan. to Po-shan, 270 miles Hwang-tai-kiao to Lo-kuo, 4 miles. Kiang-su: Shanghai through Su-chou, Chin-kiang to Nan-king, 90 miles (in addition to 113 miles under construction. Che-kiang: Hang-chou City to Hang-chou Settlement. 3 miles, under construction. In Kiang-si and Hu-nan: Yuen-chou to Shui-chou, 64 miles. Kwang-tung. Swatow to Cho-chou-fu, 25 miles Kung-yik through Sun-ning, to Sam-ka-hoi, 55 miles under construction Canton to Sam-shui, 30 miles. Kwang-tung. Hu-nan, and Hu-pe: Canton, through Chang-sha. to Han-kuo, 720 miles. Yun-nan. Ho-kou, through Meng-tze to Yun-nan-fu. 19 miles (in addition to 273 under construction). Projected railways Han-kuo to Cheng-tu via Chung-king Su-chou to Hang-chou and Ning-po Chang-sha to Chenn-chou-fu Shanghai to Kia-sing Amoy to Yen-ping, Tsean-chou-fu, Fu-chou-fu Si-ngan-fu to Tung-kwan (Shen-si) Tai-yuan-fu to Ping-yang-fu (Shan-si) Tse-chou to Tao-kou Ta-tung-fu to Kalgan Tien-tsin to Te-chou and Chin-kiang Canton to Kow-loon Wu-hu to Kwang-te-chou (Ngan-hwei) Canton to Amoy Canton to Kan-chou (Kiang-si) Chenn-chou-fu to Chang-te (Northern Hu-nan) Heng-chou-fu to Yung-chou-fu (Hu-nan) Tung-kwan to Pu-chou-fu (Shen-si, Shan-si ) Kiu-kiang to Nan-chang Sin-ning to Yung-kiang (Kwang-tung) Kalgan to Kulun (Mongolia) Lan-chou-fu to Ili (Sin-kiang). Weights and measures Measures of length: one foot (chih), 14 58 inches 10 tsun 1 tsun 10 fen 10 feet 1 chang 10 chang 1 yu. One li 360 kung or 867 yards. The land measures are the mao (mow) 240 pu or 26.73 sq. ft 100 mao one king of 16.7 acres, The tou 10 cheng or 2.269 gallons. Measures of weight: The tan or picul 100 kin or catties 133 13 lbs 1 kin (pound or catty) 16 taels or 1 13 lb 1 tael (ounce of liang) 24 chou or 1 13 oz. 1 liang 10 tsien 1 tsien 10 fen 1 fen 10 li. Money: 1 tael or liang 10 tsien (mace) 1 mace 10 fen (candareen) 1 candareen 10 li or cash (in French sapegraveque ). The tael is a weight of silver which varies considerably in value in 1906 the Haikwan tael, in which the custom revenues and all values are given, was equivalent to 2.46 Indian rupees, 1.60 Japanese yen, Mexican 1.54, English 3s 3 12d. U. S. 0.80. Chinese lump silver, called sycee (fine silk), is made into ingots resembling in shape a shoe. The silver experts are called shroff . The common year has twelve lunar months. In a period of 19 years, there are seven intercalary years, each of 13 months. Years are reckoned either from the beginning of the reign of the emperor, or from their place in the cycle of 60 years. The sexagenary cycle was devised by Ta-nao, minister of Hwang-ti. the sixty-first year of whose reign (2637 B. C.) was taken for the first cyclical sign. A common civil year consists of from 383 to 385 days. since the time of Emperor Kang-hi the day is divided into 96 ko . or quarters, sub-divided into 15 fen . or minutes, the minute into 60 miao . or seconds, each second into 60 wei these in turn are divided into 12 shih . subdivided into two siao-shi ( chu and cheng ). Social life The family name of a Chinaman is sing . China is called Pe-kia-sing . the hundred families . The prenomen is ming-tze the Christian name is sheng-ming the name given to children by parents nai-ming the official name kwan-ming . An emperor, besides his personal name, has a title as ruler nien-hao . and a dynastic title or posthumous name miao-hao some of the emperors have has several nien-hao . Thus Hiuan-yi was the personal name of the emperor, whose nien-ho (period) was Kang-hi, and his miao-hao was Sheng Tsu. The marriage ceremonies include the visit to the prospective brides father and brother by an intermediary ( mei-jin ) sent by the prospective bridegrooms father and brother to inquire her name, which is to be examined by the horoscope if the horoscope be auspicious, the mei-jin is sent to make an offer of marriage which, if accepted, is confirmed in writing presents are sent to the parent of the bride a lucky day is selected for the wedding, and the bridegroom sends some of his friends to bring the bride to his house. The seven valid grounds for divorce are: talkativeness, wantonness, theft. barrenness, disobedience to a husbands parents. jealousy. and inveterate infirmity to these infidelity has been added. The burial ceremonies are more or less varied, short or long according to the wealth of the deceased, and the dead are buried in graves. The graves of the Ming emperors at Nan-king and in Mongolia are famous. The emperors of the present dynasty are buried in Chi-li in mausoleums called Tung-li and Si-ling their ancestors rest at Mukden. The period of mourning for a father is three years, which is reduced in practice to twenty-seven months. White is the mourning colour of China it is blue for the emperor, and the seals are inked in blue instead of vermilion. The main food is rice ( fan ), and as it does not grow in Northern China, great quantities are transported to the southern provinces and Cochin-China. Among the Chinese delicacies are birds nests ( Yen-wo ), nests of the collocalia brevirostris, which are made with seaweed ( gelidium ) dried sharks fins, black or white ( pe-yu-chi or he-yu-chi ) beacuteche-de-mer ( Hai-san ) preserved eggs ( pi-tan, sung-hwa-tan ). The Chinese use a great deal of oil ( hiang-yu ) extracted from the seamum orientale . the Arachis Hypogoea . or the Brassica sinensis . The Chinese drink tea ( cha ) and fermented liquors ( sam-shoo and others). They eat with small wooden or ivory sticks, called chop-sticks ( kwai-tze ) they know the use of the fork ( cha-tze ), the spoon ( piao-keng ), and the knife ( tao ). The first day of the first moon ( Yuan-tan ) or New Years Day. is the occasion of great festivity. houses are decorated with paper flowers and small strips of guilt and red paper debts are paid and accounts are settled. The first full moon of the year is the Feast of Lanterns ( Shang-yuan-tsieh ), when lanterns of various forms, colours, and materials are suspended before each door. The fifth day of the fifth month is the Feast of the Dragons Boats ( Tien-chung-sieh ), instituted in the memory of the statesman Kiu Yuan, who drowned himself in the river Mi-lo, an affluent of the Tung-ting lake, in the fourth century B. C. Other festivals are those of the village gods ( Tu-ti-tan ), of the god of literature ( Wen-chang-tan ), of Sakyamuni, Kwan-yn, Confucius. etc. On 9 Oct. 1907, an imperial edict was issued in Peking, ordering the Board of Revenues and Commerce forthwith to introduce a uniform system of weights and measures throughout the Chinese Empire, the standards to be fixed within six months. GENERAL.--For a complete bibliography, see Cordier, Bibliotheca Sinica. Dict. bibliog. des ouvrages relatifs ecirc lempire chinois (Paris, 1904-08) Richard, Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies, tr. Kennelly (Shanghai, 1908). De Mendoiumla, Hist. de las casos mas notables. del gran Reyno de la China (Rome, 1585) Semedo, Imperio de la China (Madrid, 1642) Magaullans, Nouv. relation de la Chine (Paris, 1688) Le Comte, Nouv. meacutemoires sur leacutetat preacutesent de la Chine (Paris, 1696) Du Halde, Descrip. geacuteog. de lempire de la Chine (Paris, 1735) Meacutemoires concernant lhistorie, les sciences, les arts. des chinois (Paris, 1776-1814) Grosier, Descrip. geacuteneacuterale de la Chine (Paris, 1818-20) Davis, The Chinese (London, 1857) Williams, The Middle Kingdom (London, 1883) Richthofen, China (Berlin, 1877) Gray, China: A history of the laws, manners, etc. (1878) Mayers, The Chinese Government (Shanghai, 1878) Idem, Treaties between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers (Shanghai, 1877) Gilcs, A Glossary of References on Subjects connected with the Far East (Hong-Kong, 1886) Yule, Hobson-Jobson (London, 1886). THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.-- Legendre, Deux anneacutees au Setchouen (Paris, xliv, 433-74) Smith, Chinese Characteristics (New York, 1903) Douglas, Society in China (London, 1895). Bard, Le chinois chez eux (Paris, 1900) Kiong, Politesse chinois (Shanghai, 1906) Honang, Le marriage chinois (Shaghai, 1898) Vial, Lesprit et le coeur chez les Lolos in Annales des Missions-Etrangegraveres (Paris, 1905) 129 sq. Cavalerie Chez les chouy-kia, Ibid. (1889), 100-107 Idem, Les Miaotse et les Tchongkia, Ibid. (1904). 332-37 Lieacutetard, Les A-Djeacute et les Lou-Ou, Ibid, (1904), 74 sq. Jeremiassen, Loi Aborigines of Hainan and their Speech, in China Rev. XX, 289-305 Gilman, The Aborigines of Hainan, Ibid. XXV, 247-51 Schlefer, The Lois or Aborigines of Hainan in East of Asia Magazine (1904), III, 46-50 Colquhoun and Stewart-Lockhart, The Aborigines of Formosa in China Review, XIII, 200-207 Watters, Essays on the Chinese Language (Shanghai, 1889) Williams, Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language (Shanghai) Volipicelli, Chinese Phonology (Shanghai, 1896) Moumlllendorf, Classification of the Chinese Dialects (Shanghai, 1896) Douglas, China (London, 1882), xviii, xix, 330-400 De Harlez, Le Yih-king (Paris, 1890) Legge, The Chinese Classics with Critical and Exegetical Notes (Oxford, 1893) Jennings, The Shi-king, or Old Poetry Classic of the Chinese (London, 1891) Zottoli, Cursus Litteraelig Sinicaelig (Shanghai, 1879 --) Piry, Manuel de la langue Manderine (Shanghai, 1895) Couvreur, Dict. classique se la langue chinoise (Ho-kien-fu, 1904) Idem, Guide to Conversation in French, English, and Chinese (Ho-kien-fu, 1906). GOVERNMENT.-- Hoang, Meacutelanges sur ladminstration Varieacuteteacutes Sinologiques (Shanghai, 1902) Douglas, Society in China (London, 1905), i, 1-31, ii, 32-63 Boulger, A Short History of China (London, 1893), xxiii, 356-73 Colquhoun, China in Transformation, (London, 1898), vii, 167-98 Parker, China, her History, Diplomacy, and Commerce (London, 1901), viii, 161-81 Idem, China Past and Present (London, 1903), IV, 128-58, VI, 223-53 Smith, China from Within (London, 1901), ii, 7-16, vi, 45-59 Jerigan, Chinas Business Methods and Policy (Shanghai, 1904) Idem, China in Law and Commerce (New York, 1905) Leroy-Beaulieu, The Awakening of the East (London, 1900). EDUCATION.-- Zi, Pratique des examens litteacuteraires (Shanghai, 1894) Idem, Pratique des examens militaires (Shanghai, 1896) Tobar, Le reacuteforme des eacutetudes in Chine in acirctudes, 5 Dec. 1903 Parker, John Chinaman (London, 1901), ix, 197-200 Idem, Educational Curriculum of the Chinese in China Review, ix, 1-13 DOllone, La Chine novatrice et guerriegravere (Paris, 1906), ii, 162-68 280-84 Martin, Chinese Education, Philosophy and Letters (New York, 1898) Gee, The Educational Directory for China (Shanghai, 1905). RELIGIONS.-- De Harlez, Les religions de la Chine (Leipzig, 1891) Godard, Les croyances chinoises et japanaises (Paris, 1901) De Groot, The Religious System of China (Leyden, Amsterdam, 1894-1904) Hampden, Dragon, Image, and Demon (New York, 1887) Stanley, China from Within (London, 1901), xii, 172-89 Cornaby, China Under the Searchlight (London, 1901), ix Parker, China, Past and Present (1905), xxx, 80-127. FOREIGN RELATIONS.--Cordier, Le France en Chine au XVIIIe siegravecle (Paris, 1883) Idem, Centenaire de Marco Polo (Paris, 1896) Idem, Hist. des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales (1860-1902) (Paris, 1903) Parker, Chinas Intercourse with Europe (London, 1890) Montalto de Jesus, Historic Macao (Hong-Kong, 1902) Krausse, The Far East (London, 1903), ii, 15-34, iii, 35-57 McCarthy, The Coming Power: A Contemporary History of the Far East (1898-1905) (London, 1906) Norman, The Peoples and Politics of the Far East (London, 1895) Curzon, Problems of the Far East (London, 1896), ix, 260-310, xiv,413-28. TRADE AND CUSTOMS, 151 Edkins, The revenue and Taxation of the Chinese Empire (Shanghai, 1903) Hosie, Foreign Trade of China for the Years 1904-1905 (Foreign Office, 1906) Cordier, Les douanes impeacuteriales maritimes chinoise. Les origines et le deacuteveloppement (Tung-pao, 1906) Parker, Chinese Revenue (N. C.B. R.A. Soc. 1905) Idem, China, her History, Diplomacy and Commerce (London, 1901), x 195-208, xi, 209-26, xii, 227-43 Dyer, Things Chinese (Shanghai, 1903). About this page APA citation. Cordier, H. (1908). China. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. newadvent. orgcathen03663b. htm MLA citation. Cordier, Henri. China. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. ltnewadvent. orgcathen03663b. htmgt. Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by M. Donahue. Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. November 1, 1908. Remy Lafort, S. T.D. Censor. Imprimatur. John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster at newadvent. org. Regrettably, I cant reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback mdash especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads. A legacy of Commerce, Addiction, and Gunboat diplomacy Introduction The primary motive of British imperialism in China in the nineteenth century was economic. There was a high demand for Chinese tea, silk and porcelain in the British market. However, Britain did not possess sufficient silver to trade with the Qing Empire. Thus, a system of barter based on Indian opium was created to bridge this problem of payment. The subsequent exponential increase of opium in China between 1790 and 1832 brought about a generation of addicts and social instability. Clashes between the Qing government and British merchants ultimately escalated into the infamous Opium Wars. As a result, the British were given the island of Hong Kong and trading rights in the ports of Canton and Shanghai. Although British imperialism never politically took hold in mainland China, as it did in India or Africa, its cultural and political legacy is still evident today. Honk Kong remains a significant center of global finance and its government still functioned in much of the same ways as it did under British colonialism. Furthermore, the language of English and British culture highly impacted the society of Hong Kong and Southern China for over a century. This Research Guide is divided into four main components. The first section is devoted to the definitions and qualifications of imperialism. This part mainly consists of print sources that focus on the political, economic and social mechanisms of imperialism. It provides scholarly perspectives and criticisms regarding its causes and effects. The second section consists of both print and interactive sources. This section focuses on the topic of British Imperialism in China from a British perspective. The sources include various political justifications and financial factors that influence Britains diplomatic decisions and imperialist tactics. The third section presents the Chinese perspective. The sources in this section explain the development of Chinese nationalism and the intricacies of international relations in the Qing court. The final section deals with the legacy of British imperialism in Hong Kong and southern China. The sources here examine the cultural and political footprint of the British in this region. Chronology of Events Founding of The East India Company. The Royal Charter of the Company was approved by Elizabeth I Manchurian Qing Dynasty established in China Recreational OpiumTobacco mix first introduced to China by the Dutch British Parliament bans Asian textile Imports to increase domestic production Chinese Tea as one of the primary Commodities in the British market First government prohibition on the distribution of Opium in China (Not heavily Enforced) British began to use Opium as a Cash Crop for both Chinese commodities and silver Imperialism: Definition and Historical Context Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion Winfried Baumgart devotes this study to defining the idea of European Imperialism. He split this broad concept into three separate and more manageable subcategories. First, he explains the political atmosphere of mid-ninteenth century Europe. He qualifies various preconditions that made eastern expansion possible. He highlights the significance of early trading port, naval developments, missionary activities, exploration, and technological advancements. Second he approaches the topic of imperialism from a nationalistic perspective. He explains social conception of nationalism and the white mans burden to not only expand into foreign lands but also to culturally educate the natives. Furthermore, Baumgart also explains the competitive nature of nationalism amongst fellow European imperialist nations. The importance of political and economic dominance becomes a major issue between imperialist nations. His final subcategory is the economic theory behind this expansionist enterprise. In this part of the book, Baumgart discusses the application of capitalist and mercantilist economic theories in foreign markets. He analyses the economic policy of Protectionism which is significant for understanding the imperialist initiatives for the Opium War. This book serves as a strong introduction to the broad idea of Imperialism. Baumgart, Winfried. Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion,1880-1914. Oxford. Oxford University Press. 1982 The Economics of European Imperialism Alan Hodgart gives a comprehensive evaluation of the economic forces of European Imperialism. This book approaches this topic form both a Marxist and anti-Marxist perspective. On the one hand, Marxists such as Lenin and Hobson, describes imperialism as a opportunistic extension of capitalism. The exportation of capital into foreign and less competitive markets was the driving force of all imperialistic ventures. The politics and ideologies were simply justifications of this economic phenomenon. On the other hand, the anti-Marxists, represented by Joseph Schumpeter, argues that imperialism was a result of a objectless national affinity to expand. The author also signifies Weber8217s idea of the Capitalist Spirit that it is in the best interest of the powerful capitalist to continuously expand. Hodgart8217s economic-based depiction of imperialism not only provides a deeper understanding of this period but also shows the complexity of the phenomenon that European imperialism could be justified and criticized from many different perspectives. Hodgart, Alan. The Economics of European Imperialism . New York. W. W. Norton amp Company Inc. 1977 The British Perspective Established in 1600, the East India Company was one of Britain8217s most prominent imperialistic entities in Asia. British Imperialism: 1688-2000 A 700 page comprehensive history that covers the all the major colonial and imperialistic ventures since 1688. This source serves as a catalog of events it documents all the figures, wars, treaties and embargoes from early colonialism to the decolonization after the second World War. This book is very similar to a typical history textbook. It is topical and event driven it mainly focuses on painting a picture of the past rather than analyzing the conceptual forces such as nationalism or economic theories. Although the description of each event is brief, it is an excellent starting point for understanding the historical significance of the period. Cain, Peters. Hopkins, Tony. British Imperialism: 1688-2000, New Jersey. Pearson. 2001. The Honorable Company: A history of the English East India Company The East India Company was one of the important vessels of British Imperialism. It was controlled by wealthy merchants and was known for the trades in tea, porcelain, spices, salt and opium. During the British Colonial period in India the East India company even raised its own private military unit to protect its purely economic interest. This source covers the history of the company from the establishment of its royal charter in 1600 to its collapse in the late nineteenth century. This book explains the commercial aspects of imperialism which exemplifies the theoretical economic factors associated with imperialism. More importantly, it narrows the scope of imperialism from the political and economic actions of a nation to the actions of a company in which the British government had no direct control. It also contains a comprehensive overview of the company8217s tea and opium dealings with the Qing empire in China. It analyzes the events of the opium wars from a commercial perspective. Keay, John. The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company. New York, Scribner Press. 1994 Punch Magazine 8220Punch was a Victorian weekly magazine that built up for itself a reputation for satire and savagely cutting commentary. Although in many ways a conservative magazine, they kept no sacred cows anything and everything was available to be satirized and ridiculed. Reputations and careers were made and broken by the cartoons and articles depicted in this magazine. The fact that Punch was commenting on events as they happened has meant that it has provided historians with an invaluable source of contemporary values and ideas.8221 Click here to visit site Life in the British Colony of Hong Kong The following source is a description of the culture and lifestyle in the British Colony of Hong Kong in the 1930s. The author was half British and half French. The first portion of the book depicts the author8217s childhood in Hong Kong and her interactions with Chinese locals as well as the European inhabitants. It serves as an anthropologic view on the class dynamics of this colony. The second half deals with the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong during World War II. Jong, Yvonne Blackmore de. An Extraordinary Youth: Growing Up in British Hong Kong . Seattle, Create Space Ind. Publishing Platform. 2010. Spense Documentary Collection 6.1 Lord Maccartney8217s Commission from Henry Dundas, 1792- This document was the a letter from Henry Dundas, a representative from the East India Company, written the Lord Macartney, a British Diplomat in China. This letter represents the early attitude of Europeans towards the Qing empire. The tone of this letter shows shows British dignity but also respects the authority of the Chinese. This attitude would change significantly after industrialization and and the Opium Wars. 7.5 Lord Palmerston8217s Declaration of War (February 20, 1840) 8211 The formal response to the seizure and destruction of British opium by the Qing government. Lord Palmerston, the Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, informs the Qing Government of British intentions to protect its interests in China. This was the document that began not only the first Opium War, but also the first of many conflicts between Qing China and industrialized Western powers. Spense, Jonathan D. Cheng, Pei-Kai. Lestz, Michael. The Search For Modern China: A Documentary Collection. New York W. W. Norton amp Company Inc. 1999 Destruction of the Old Summer Palace in 1860 During the Second Opium War in 1860, the allegiance of of European imperialist occupied the Chinese capital of Peking (Beijing). The Old Summer Palace, the Qing Chinese equivalent of a national museum, was looted and subsequently burnt down. Various looted artifacts appear today in museums around the world. The following is a link to some of these priceless items. The Chinese Prospective The Opium War of 1839 The Opium War of 1839 was the first large scale military conflicts between the Qing Empire and western imperial powers. With the official prohibition of opium in 1836 in China, the Qing government launched a campaign to confiscate all foreign imported opium in Canton. In 1839, commissioner Lin Zexu seized over a million kilograms of opium and burned them. The British Empire responded by sending in the military and initiating the first Opium War. The result of this war not only lead to China8217s lost of Hong Kong Island, but also revealed the military weakness of the Qing government. Up to this point western imperialist powers have been wary of the Qing Empire, but after this conflict, China begins to experience a series of disadvantageous economic pressures form Britain and other European empires. In Peter Fey8217s The Opium War, the author explains the economic intentions of the British Empire in China before 1839 and after 1842. He highlights the significance of the first Opium War, its legacy of further western aggression, and the subsequent Chinese movements of military industrialization and self strengthening. Fay, Peter Ward. The Opium War: 1840-1842.Chapel Hill. The University of North Carolina Press. 1998 The following is a translated letter from Commissioner Lin Zexu to Queen Victoria on the eve of the first Opium War in 1839. Although this letter never reached Queen Victoria, it nevertheless represented the views of Lin regarding both the Opium Trade in Canton and the broader idea of the free market. Lin approaches the topic of restricting opium in a respectful but assertive tone. He also addresses the problem of imperialism. 8220We The Chinese find your country Britain is sixty or seventy thousand li about 4800 miles from China Yet there are barbanan ships that strive to come here for trade for the purpose of making a great profit The wealth of China is used to profit the barbarians.8221 Though Lin does not fully understand the western concept of Imperialism, he is one of the earliest Chinese officials to recognize the 8220Barbarians8221 as a future threat to both Qing authority and Chinese society. Click Here to view the letter. ltacademic. brooklyn. cuny. educore9phalsalltextscom-lin. htmlgt Lin Zexu is revered as a Chinese national hero for standing up against imperialist powers and burning over a million kilograms of illegal British opium. This statue sits in Humen, a battle site in the first Opium War, where the Opium War Museum is now located. Jonathan D Spence is one of the most well known scholar in Chinese history. He served as Sterling Professor at Yale University from 1993 to 2007. His survey textbook, In Search for modern China, gives a comprehensive coverage of Chinese history from the early 1600s up to the present. His description of British Imperialism, the Opium Wars, and the Boxer Rebellion provides an overview from both the perspective of the Qing Empire and the Chinese nationalists. The bibliography of the textbook is an archive for reliable sources. Furthermore, as supplement to the textbook, Spence also compiled a collection of primary sources in his Documentary Collection. 7.1 Memorial of Legalizing opium (June 10, 1836) 8211 This document is a request from a Qing court official, Xu Naiji, to the Emperor for the legalization of opium. In 1836 opium trade was prohibited but not strictly enforced. In southern regions of Canton, where British influence is strong, opium smuggling was very common. The Portuguese colony of Macao serves as the primary smuggling port for Indian opium. As a result silver, the official Qing currency, experienced severe inflation. Xu argues that since prohibition was ineffective, legalization and a government monopoly of opium may be a better alternative in solving the social crisis of addiction and economic crisis of inflation. 7.2 Memorial on Banning Opium (October 1836) 8211 This document presents a different angle in the broader Chinese perspective. Zhu Zun was a member of the Board of Rites who pushed for complete prohibition of opium. Zhu represents the conservative view and believes that the Qing empire could easily overcome the foreigners. He exemplifies the adverse economic effects of opium in various regions and pushed for government action in enforcing the ban 7.3 Imperial Edict of 1836 8211 The official edict of the Daoguang Emperor that demanded higher levels of restriction of opium trade in southern China. The Emperor agrees with Zhu8217s view and appointed Deng Tingzhen, the governer-general of Canton, to carry out the new prohibition laws. 9.3 Prince Gong on the Tongwen College: Three Memorials 1861, 1865, 1866- After the Opium War, the Qing Empire learned that its military strength was far weaker than that of European Imperialists. Thus China began a period of self self strengthening and reform. Prince Gong was the most active reformer in the Qing government. This document represents his efforts to promote the Tongwen College, a facility that focused on Western Studies including language, government and technology. This document also serves as evidence of China8217s awareness and reaction to European threats. 9.4 Zongli Yamen Document on Unequal Treaties, 1878- The Zongli Yamen was a makeshift department of foreign affairs established by Prince Gong to deal with the demands and aggression of Imperialist powers. The following documents were critiques and interpretations of various foreign treaties that the Qing Empire was forced to sign. These documents show the desperate efforts of reformers like Price Gong to mediate between Western Imperialists and the Conservatives lead by Empress Dowager Cixi. 9.8 Chinese Anti-Foreignism, 1892- This document was a pamphlet circulating in Canton. In the late nineteenth century, Canton was under the influence of Britain. Along with the merchants and imperialists came a new wave of religious advocates and missionaries. This pamphlet ridicules Christianity as religion and spreads disturbing and untrue stereotypes about white foreigners. This document serves as a Chinese counterpart to the British perspective of 8220native barbarian8221 in China, India and Africa. 10.5 Boxer Memoirs: Oral Accounts of the Boxer Rebellion - The Boxer rebellion in 1900 was a bottom-up, disorganized rebellion from Han nationalists against both the weak Manchu Qing regime and foreign imperialism. These two accounts recall the events of the rebellion in explicit detail and shows the anti-foreign social mood of the Chinese in the turn of the century. Spense, Jonathan D. Cheng, Pei-Kai. Lestz, Michael. The Search For Modern China: A Documentary Collection. New York W. W. Norton amp Company Inc. 1999 Lasting Legacies of British Imperialism BritishHong Kong Passport prior to 1997 Historical Memory of 19th century Imperialism The following website is a part of the Hoover Archives that covers 19th century European Imperialism in Asia. Since it is a 8220.gov8221 page, it somewhat represents the political memory of that period. This source represents a politically American point of view on events such as the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion. This website is worth investigating because it deals with the political memory of imperialism from the angle of a nation that participated but mostly remained on the sidelines. It depicts this period of imperialism in retrospect and could be contrasted with the various primary sources to gain a more stronger understanding of the era. Hong Kong8217s Development The following source covers the history of Hong Kong from its colonization in 1839 to its return to China in 1997. This book explains the strategic economic position of Hong Kong in relation to imperial global commerce. It also focuses on the social adaptations of ethnic Hong Kong citizens. This source serve as a comprehensive analysis on the political, economic and social development of this island with respect to global changes in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Tsang, Steve. A Modern History of Hong Kong. London. I. B. Tauris. 2007 A Problematic Hybrid Culture Because the island of Hong Kong have been under British political and cultural influence for over a century, its return to China faces a dilemma of culture. This book explains the complexities of such conflicts. First, the most obvious cultural conflict was communication. For the last century, Hong Kong have been using a bilingual system. The citizens mostly spoke Cantonese, but the official written language was English. This creates an internal language barrier because the official language of Chinese is mandarin. Another cultural conflict is the nature of the justice system. Hong Kong have adopted the Western system of trial by jury, but the Communist government tries criminals without a jury. This book discusses the negotiations of these dilemmas between Hong Kong and China. Due the such issues, the Communist government is currently implementing a policy for Hong Kong to politically function as it did under British control for 50 more years. Abbas, Ackbar. Hong Kong: Culture and Politics of Disappearance . Minneapolis. University of Minnesota Press. 1998Hard Lessons Learned on My Sourcing Trip to China and the Canton Fair This post is by Danny McMillan , a London-based Amazon Seller who sells in Europe and the US. Danny has previously worked in the music industry and with tech start-ups. He is now a public speaker and regularly co-presents at the UKs largest Meetup group for Amazon sellers on subjects including PPC and conversion optimization. The Canton Fair is a great place to choose for your first product sourcing mission. But to get the most out of the experience, you have to properly prepare for your visit. That can take a lot time when you are learning everything from scratch. I hope that this article will slash your prep time and save you some of the pain my business partner and I went through on our first visit. During my first Canton Fair, I actually over-planned and as a result, most of my plans did not pan out as expected. However, it was still an amazing experience and we learned some valuable lessons along the way. Here are just a few of the things I wish I had been told pre-Canton. Ive also included some great tips from six Amazon experts I met along the way: Will Tjernlund, Michael Michelini, Chris Davey, Manuel Becvar, Ashley Thompson, Ashish Monga and Greg Mercer. Find profitable products to sell Find the best products and connect with suppliers. Tools for market research, bulk product analysis, importingprivate labeling, online arbitrage, liquidation buying, dropshipping and more. All in the Web Retailer directory. Planning your schedule: its not just about the Fair First off, you will need to determine the length of your trip and which phases you wish to attend. The Canton Fair packs down for a few days between phases so it pays to plan in other sourcing options to make the most of your time. When speaking to Amazon Sellers on the ground the general consensus was to visit either two or three phases, using the gaps between to visit trade fairs in Hong Kong, or niche events within China in places such as Shenzhen. Don8217t think that the Canton Fair is the be-all and end-all Hong Kong offers a lot of opportunity and the quality can be very high. Allow yourself time to take it all in. We managed to cram in Phase 1, then zip over to Hong Kong before making it back for Phase 2. On the last day we slipped in a visit to a factory in Shenzhen. On the last day of a phase, most exhibitions in China start to shut down early. Expect to see them closing from 11am with most being closed by 2pm. Once they start closing it8217s like an avalanche, the only reason to go on the last day is to try and get samples. Chris Davey, MD and Sourcing Consultant, Source From Asia Other shows If you are planning to head to Hong Kong between Canton phases, you should sign up for both the Global Sources and HKTDC shows. Both of these shows were perfect for our portfolio and we came away with a lot of new connections and leads for new products. In fact, I found that the level of product quality and innovation of vendors from outside China was higher than in Canton, but this may not be true for everyone. Take a look and see if any of these shows and events might be a good fit for you: Smart China Sourcing Summit. A popular networking event with lots of knowledgeable Amazon presenters. I did a presentation on PPC and have been asked back again for the October event. This was the pilot event attached to the fair and it was completely focused around Amazon sellers. Yiwu Markets. Alternatively, you could catch a flight out of Guangzhou and head to Yiwu to visit the markets. The Yiwu markets operate all year around with five districts that cover various product verticals. It is advisable to hire a translator or take your sourcing agent with you to communicate. Though you need to dig deep for high quality products, its a great place to pick up bargains at low MOQs. It is also only a two-hour journey from Guangzhou, so could be a worthwhile option between pack-downs of Canton Phases. Shenzhen Fair. If you have managed to cover a lot of ground in Phase 2 at Canton you could always take a train or car and head to the Shenzhen Fair. This year its their 24th event and its most suitable for those looking for gifts, handcrafts and houseware items. Meeting with your suppliers Dont forget to meet with your existing suppliers We made arrangements to meet ours at their booth in Canton Phase 1. Then we had dinner with them during Phase 2, and discussed new products and some manufacturing processes on our current products. They were amazing all the way through the process, and they helped a lot with translations, hotel bookings and those tricky train tickets to Hong Kong. Our rep took a 30-hour train journey to help with communications during Phase 2, which was an enormous help. Networking I cannot stress enough the value you gain from hanging out with like-minded people, and 99 of the people we met were very open and helpful. I think if we kept it strict and returned to our apartment each night, the trip would have been a lot less fun and educational. Organize meetups for every night. You have nothing to do at night anyways so you might as well use that time to network and learn from other Amazon sellers. There are always a ton of meet ups going on during the Canton Fair so it should not be too hard to find one. Will Tjernlund, Amazon Expert, AMZ Help Amazon Canton Fair Meetup. Each year Chris Davey hosts a series of Amazon Meetup Events, and this year he put on one for Phase 1 and 2 of Canton with over 100 delegates in attendance. It is held at McCawley8217s Bar amp Grill. Keep an eye on the Amazon FBA Facebook groups leading up to the event for more details. Startup Bros Seller Labs Party. This was a glamorous private party and you had to be invited we got in via one of the WeChat groups. The event was held on the 42nd floor of the Westin Hotel and was short in duration, but the layout and view were pretty impressive. There were lots of friendly faces and established players from Amazon FBA, all rubbing shoulders with new sellers. Global Sources Meetup. This was put on by Peter Zapf, the CIO from Global Sources. It was a held next to the Smart China Sourcing Summit on the 2nd floor at the AsiaWorld-Expo. It was a great event with a mixture of delegates and speakers in attendance. Other events: Lots of little impromptu dinners and gatherings took place over the duration, and we made it along to most of them Travel logistics: flights, visas and accommodation Now that you have worked out your schedule, it is time to get your flights, accommodation and visas arranged. We flew with China Southern Airlines, but I wouldn8217t exactly recommend them. I wasnt able to check in online, and when I called them I was left on hold for nearly four hours. When I finally got through, the lady said she was the only rep working and handling all calls. We booked via Travel Trolley and they could not help with any support with regards to China Southern. If you can find another airline, use them. If you are working on a tight budget, then book night flights and try flying on Wednesdays, which is considered the cheapest day to fly. Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport is the main airport for Guangzhou. Before getting your visa you will need to register for a badge and apply for an invitation letter you need the letter and flight details in order to get the visa processed. I will warn you now, the website is not great and can be extremely confusing to novice users. First go to the Buyer E-Service Tool then click English at the top right to change the language. This is where you apply for an invitation letter. Make sure you have some recent passport photos with a white background as you will need them for your buyer badge and visa application. We then used Chinese Visa Direct as we had a tight timeline and it was our first time completing the paperwork. Each visa cost 195.00 using the standard service, which is 45.00 more than doing it yourself. Even if you use this service, you still have to do some legwork to complete the paperwork. Be aware that if you manage the visa process yourself. you have to book way in advance. I know some people who had to travel hundreds of miles to Manchester to get theirs. Allow at least 4-5 weeks lead time to be safe. Accommodation We used Airbnb for our accommodation in both China and Hong Kong. This was not without difficulty every time I mentioned Canton the rates doubled or tripled. In the end I pulled up Google Maps and searched within 5-10 miles of the Canton Fair Complex, but slightly off the beaten track. We stayed near Jiangnanxi MTR (metro station) and had a real struggle the first day. It took us two hours to get a cab as no one (and I really mean no one ) spoke English. In the end I managed to get our Airbnb host to WhatsApp me the directions to show the taxi driver. Whilst we saved about 1,000 by using Airbnb, we had a hard time getting around. As a precaution we booked into The Pullman Hotel at Guangzhou Airport for the last day so we did not miss our flight home if the cab failed to show up. In Hong Kong we stayed on the Canton Rd in Kowloon. This was a little easier to navigate. Some people we met made the mistake of staying at the airport near the Global Sources Fair, however the airport is cut off from all the action. One delegate we spoke to even checked out and headed into central Hong Kong after a couple of days. While in China I put out a message to the various WeChat groups people had set up, asking for their opinion on the best hotels near the Canton Fair. The Westin on the Canton Complex appeared to be a popular choice. A quick check for October showed that they charge roughly 500 per night, but if you are on a budget then take a look at Leedon Hotel (GZ) and Yuwa Hotel (GZ) as alternative options. If you are already working with Chinese factories you can ask them to source hotels and negotiate on your behalf. The chances are you will get a better rate and you will be safe in the knowledge you are located near the venue. Register for the Fair at the hotel, this avoids long queues at the Canton Fair itself. Check the website for the nearest hotel that can provide the exhibition badge. Also check for which hotels have a free bus. These leave often and you don8217t need to be a guest at the hotel to use the bus. Chris Davey, MD and Sourcing Consultant, Source From Asia Other considerations before you leave home Visiting China and the Canton Fair is not like a typical family vacation where you can book your flights and accommodation, then figure the rest out when you arrive in the country. There are a number of things that will make your life a lot easier if you can arrange them before you travel. Canton pre-research Due to the sheer scale of the exhibition venue, it is important to do some research pre-show and shortlist the products and suppliers you are most interested in meeting and then map out your movement among the different halls. This will allow you to ensure you can achieve your key objectives before you get distracted by the myriad products at the show. Ashish Monga, Founder, IMEX Sourcing Services I took on a VA (virtual assistant) from the Philippines in advance, and spent a considerable amount of time training him to find potential products so I could maximise my time at the Fair. It is very easy to get bogged down in a sea of data. Sourcing and researching can be tedious at best, so paying someone 3.20 per hour made sense, freeing me up to take on more high-level tasks. But finding manufacturers exhibiting at the Fair for the selected products proved really difficult. We used software tools to find keyword variations but still got zero results for many of the niche products we chose. Right up to the moment I boarded my plane, I had my VA contacting relevant suppliers on Alibaba and asking them if they would be attending the Fair, and if they could provide booth details for us to see them. As you can imagine, this was quite stressful but we wanted to be prepared and maximise our trip. The biggest mistake that I see is people going without an agenda. These people hope to stumble across a great product idea at the fair. In reality, it is so large, it is physically impossible to browse and see everything. So instead, if you go there with a list of say 20 products, map out the vendors before you step into the hall, you will save yourself a lot of time, energy, and potentially money. Greg Mercer, Founder, Jungle Scout You will likely be looking for a category of a product so you should prepare yourself with some basic prices that you have received from suppliers beforehand. Knowing your prices is essential before going to an exhibition. If you are looking at new products and are not aware of prices try my 8220rule of thumb8221 calculation of 30. Add this and your margin to calculate your selling price. You will quickly figure out if the price the supplier gave you at the booth is realistic or not. Manuel Becvar, Founder amp CEO, ImportDojo Phone apps The are a number of useful smartphone apps that I recommend: Uber: This is a great option, but in China the drivers mainly only speak Chinese so you do need to have someone to translate, but its still better than the old-style taxi services. Hong Kong App: There are a few out there, but we used one called Hong Kong Metro. It is very basic but does a fine job of pulling up Metro Stations to help you get from A to B. Guangzhou Metro: We used the Mapway version and it was an absolute life saver as we could show it to the MTR staff each time we travelled. They would then punch in all the info to sell us the right tickets. Jet Lag App: We used Jet Lag Rooster it is a simple app that allows you to put in your flight details and timings so it can provide a calculation for when to take in daylight and when to sleep. Evernote: This is great for capturing notes. Take an extra battery pack as you might be using it for hours each day. WhatsApp and WeChat (the Chinese equivalent to WhatsApp): Lots of people create chat groups on these apps during the Fair. These are great resources for arranging meetings as well as staying in touch with home. If you have a VPN setup you can use Facebook as an additional option for calls (direct Facebook access is blocked in China) but the other two more than have you covered. Get a decent VPN and set it up on all your devices prior to leaving. The paid ones work best we used ExpressVPN and it was consistent. You can set it up with a months free trial period and decide whether to keep it on your return. Best hack is to get a good internet connection and a good VPN. It is very frustrating to do business over in China due to the internet restrictions. I stayed at the Ritz Carlton my last trip and the entire hotel has a built in VPN. It made conducting business while in China a breeze and is worth the extra price. Will Tjernlund, Amazon Expert, AMZ Help Business cards There are different schools of thought when it comes to creating your business cards for the Fair. Some put down their position as Director, while others insist on downgrading their role to the position of Buyer for their company. This is because some feel the Chinese may not take you seriously if you are visiting as a director, and they may think you run a small company. It is entirely up to you, but my take is that if you are out there and your money is good, any business card or title will be fine. Avoid the big suppliers if you8217re a small fish. They won8217t be interested in your 500pcs order unless its high-value items. Don8217t pretend you8217re a big guy if you8217re not, they will soon figure out you are bluffing. Chris Davey, MD and Sourcing Consultant, Source From Asia Due to the hyper levels of spamming, consider taking two sets of cards. One Chinese seller told me that some salespeople hang around outside and are paid a commission for every business card they collect so be ready for an inbox firehose if you give your card away freely. If you have a little less budget to play with but want to get a second set done for the spammers, you could use Vista Print . Have special name cards ready for mass spam after the fair. Bring a couple hundred specifically for the fair with your WeChat and QQ handles on them. Michael Michelini, Host, Global From Asia Podcast Alternatively, take pictures with the vendors, capture the booth number and pin the business card onto their catalog page or flyer. This helps humanize the experience and you can send an email on your return when you want to start negotiations. I cannot emphasis enough the importance of good footwear. This is such an important factor due to the sheer size of the fair I ended up with blisters to the point where I could barely walk. Make sure you pack some Band-Aids and rotate your shoes each day. We stumbled here time and time again, as we were under the impression that we could simply use our credit cards to exchange cash. But no matter where we went in China and Hong Kong, the currency desks would only accept cash for currency exchange. You may find this less of an issue if you are staying in one of the major hotels, but I would advise that you get some cash exchanged prior to leaving home. Take enough to cover the taxi to your accommodation after you land, then use the ATMs in the city or hotels. There are plenty of these dotted around but you need to check if they accept your card type. Taxis are a nightmare to get. You can take a taxi to the exhibition in the morning from your hotel, but in the late afternoon you can sometimes wait up to 2 hours to get a taxi back. There are illegal taxis everywhere but they charge 10 times the price. I recommend you take the hotel bus or the subway instead. There are two subway stations at the exhibition grounds. Manuel Becvar, Founder amp CEO, ImportDojo We use iPhones so we took two additional unlocked handsets and were planning to use local SIM cards in them. However, on the Hong Kong leg we were able to buy an unlimited data SIM card, and inserted it into our mobile Wifi device to we could access the internet from all our phones and laptops. This made things much more economical, and because we carried chargers with us everywhere we went, we had access day and night. A data add-on on my phone network would have cost around 40.00 for only 100MB, so it pays to be organised here. During the Canton Fair Due to the sheer size of the place we marked out which zones and areas we wanted to attend and applied a rough time frame. For instance, walking from Zone A to Zone C could take you 30 minutes. Bearing in mind that you have roughly eight hours to play with each day and only one pair of legs to take you around, it makes sense to mark out your planner to fit with: Your arrival location (by gate or metro station) The product category (by zone) Where you plan to eat Where you will exit By day8217s end you will be exhausted so it makes sense to spend five minutes pre-planning your day. Speaking to suppliers My business partner and I played as a tag-team. While I spoke with the vendor, he took pictures of the booth, the main product, the brochures and business cards, and finally a picture of me and the rep. The images and card shots were a way for us to track the products we liked after our return. Take selfies with the sales reps, seriously They see so many people over the course of the fair, they aren8217t going to remember their own dog8217s name by the end. I like to take a selfie, send it to them in the follow up email, and mention something from the conversation we had, so that I can continue the personal rapport we built in-person. That makes the trip to Asia worthwhile, otherwise you might as well just use Alibaba like everyone else Greg Mercer, Founder, Jungle Scout When meeting new suppliers, the key thing is to quickly establish rapport and find out if we could work with them. The most common questions we asked were: Do you deal with any other Amazon sellers in the US or Europe How long has this particular product been on the market What are your lead times on manufacturing Where is your factory located If I was satisfied with the answers, we would exchange cards and I would request an e-catalog to be sent to my inbox. Sometimes they would give me a memory stick or a flyer on the product, but I would never accept a full catalog who wants to be carrying a heavy stack of magazines around all day That evening or the next morning, I would log the stand-out products from memory into a spreadsheet and apply notes for reference. Screen new suppliers by asking if they have certificates to sell in your target market, and move on if they dont. Ask about their latest products or innovations slight variations on current bestsellers can be a gold mine. Ask where their factory is based and if you can visit, to suss out whether they are a factory or a trading company. And ask if they supply to any big brands the probability that you will get high quality products increases when the supplier is already dealing with well-known brands. Ashley Thompson, multi-brand Amazon powerseller Never place orders right away. You should negotiate prices, ask questions and maybe tell the supplier that you want to order when you are back home. But dont tell them too enthusiastically that you want to order right away. Why The prices you get at the fairs are usually not the best prices. You will want to clarify your terms first via email or phone calls before you place an order. Have them sign a purchase order agreement if you need to show commitment. Manuel Becvar, Founder amp CEO, ImportDojo Catalogs and flyers You will be offered a lot of marketing material at the Fair. The best thing to do is choose what you want wisely and use DHL (situated in the halls) to ship it back home. This will be much cheaper and easier than paying for extra luggage at the airport. Alternatively (as mentioned earlier) just take images of the products you want and request a thumb drive or e-catalog to be sent. Adapting on the ground All the prep work we painstakingly put together before we left was not used in any shape or form. This was due to the following reasons: Product selection strategy Before the Fair we had only sourced using online tools and had a set method that was purely data driven, on Amazon and in certain categories. This is both focused and limiting at the same time. Online vs offline When you are sourcing online you have a huge amount of work to do after finding a product. Our process would be to find 20 or so suppliers and then whittle them down to a handful. This could take a week and you still have no idea how good the samples will be. On the ground it is the reverse, you see a product that catches your eye and then engage. Its all done in a matter of minutes before moving on to the next booth. Real-time changes We made changes to our selection strategy while we were there. Because of the type of products we were interested in, we offered suppliers a partnership deal, giving us exclusivity to sell on Amazon to avoid a race to the bottom. On the last day prior to coming home, one of the factories sent an Uber car to take us to Shenzhen, look around and agree terms (subject to pricing). Getting insights like this was invaluable. We spotted lots of manufacturing issues which could be improved to reduce wastage. We went into the trip expecting to pursue private labels, but now we will diversify and do exclusive deals to build out our product line faster. Advantages over the competition The list here is endless. For example: You get to see all the new products prior to full release (most companies do not keep their Alibaba page up to date). You get validation and more respect because you got on a plane and met them face-to-face. You find vendors that are not even in China, let alone on Alibaba. You get to handle the product prior to the sample stage. You can get eye contact, body language and understanding if you are dealing with a factory or trading company. 99 of Amazon FBA sellers will not attend fairs. The follow-up process After returning from the Fair, the first thing I did was digitise everything from business cards to product information. On reflection what we should have done is use Evernote to group and log product details after each booth visit this would have only taken a couple of minutes at the time, and would have cut out the indexing each day on the trip as well as prep work at the office. We had nearly 600 images to filter through and label. After various attempts to download them we settled on using the WeTransfer iPhone app. All in all we walked away with roughly 50 products that we chose to put through the validation process. From here we carved out the winners by sending out emails to the suppliers asking the following: Do you sell this product to Amazon sellers What is your MOQ What is your unit price Please can you provide shipping info so we can get our freight forwarder to provide a shipping quote Yes, we asked the Amazon question again this was to check if they were being honest. The remaining questions establish the quickest route to the numbers. We have an automated spreadsheet to plug the numbers into, allowing us to find out quickly if we can make it work profitably. I would then search Amazon to check that the product wasn8217t already being sold, and do a reverse image look up on Google to double check. Once we were confident that we had kicked out the losers and reduced our list considerably, it was time to go into deeper negotiations. Summary: Ten Tips for Your Visit Here is a quick round-up of some of the things we will do differently next time. We learned these lessons the hard way, so you dont have to: Accommodation: Stay in good hotels with access to English-speaking staff, shuttle buses and close proximity to the complex. If like me, you have special dietary requirements, make sure you check out the hotel menu prior to booking. Comfort: Take an extra pair of comfortable shoes and rotate. We did an incredible amount of walking and my legs were in constant pain, not to mention all the blisters. I had to load up on Band-Aids each day just so I could walk. Flexibility: Avoid over-planning and try to go with the flow. I spent a lot of energy figuring out all possible outcomes for the trip, none of which went to plan. By being flexible we gained much more for our business. Planning: However, it is important to have an idea of what products you are interested in and work out a schedule ahead of time. For example, the pets section (which is a large market on Amazon) was very limited at the Canton Fair (25 of one hall which took less than an hour), and was almost entirely overlooked at both Hong Kong shows. If this is your area, it may not be worth the trip. Home and kitchen on the other hand, is a huge category, and you have plenty to choose from. Pick your Phases wisely. Networking: Do network and join all the groups on WeChat etc. This will add to your experience. If you want to optimize your time, are lost, need a translation, or have a product question, just ask the groups and they will fire back answers. Chris Davey8217s Phase Two Canton Fair meetup at McCrawley8217s Bar Airlines: We did not have a good experience with China Southern, but some of the other delegates spoke highly of Turkish Air. I am not a fan of connecting flights (Istanbul) but on the flip side it will break up the journey and at roughly 350.00 per flight it is worth considering. Next time around we will cut out the zig-zagging with a flight into Hong Kong, and train tickets pre-booked from HK to Guangzhou. We would then spend a couple of days at Canton Phase 2, followed by two days at the Yiwu markets with a sourcing agent, then fly out from the nearest airport this will shave 2-3 days off the trip. Sourcing methods: As we had been sourcing in just one way, it put incredible limitations on us to find products. With everyone using the same tools, platforms and product filters, it made it very difficult to find low-competition products that stood out. Most Amazon sellers will never attend the Canton Fair, less so the events in Hong Kong and the markets in Yiwu. I estimate that the trip will put you about 6-12 months ahead of the competition before the new products turn up on Alibaba. Speed and tactility: The ability to reverse the process and skip the tedious process of contacting 20-30 vendors, boiling them down to the chosen few, then finding that the quality is poor and you cannot make the numbers work. By spotting the product first, you cut out the guesswork as you get to handle the sample and learn about the company. Indexing: While we had a good system in place, we still managed to spend a tremendous amount of time collating and digitising both on the trip (1.5 hours per day) and on our return (two full days). Next time we will apply the same methods from earlier but use Evernote over Wifi it should take less than five minutes at each booth. Scale: We have built a great network of people including translators, consolidators and sourcing agents. Added to the benefit of face-to-face time with suppliers, this means we can get scaling up fast and have a support network on hand to make sure everything runs smoothly in the future. In Closing We went to the Fair aiming to widen our product pipeline. We had been having a lot of different problems with finding the right balance of product selection and sales velocity, plus we had issues with the supplier negotiation process and sample quality. This caused us to abort a few times late into the process, which left us both frustrated at the lost opportunity. For our business, the trip to China and Hong Kong was a revelation. It was a fantastic experience, to the point where I was already making notes on the flight home about our return visit in October. I hope that sharing our experiences will help you make the most of your own trip. Let me know if you have any questions by posting a comment below. Find profitable products to sell Find the best products and connect with suppliers. Tools for market research, bulk product analysis, importingprivate labeling, online arbitrage, liquidation buying, dropshipping and more. All in the Web Retailer directory. Post navigation Vertical City Hotel is also a great place to stay. It has 2 metro lines crossing in the basement, so just take the elevator down to the basement to catch the metro to the Canton complex, about 8 stops away. Much less costly than most of the Western brands. I would call it a 4 star. And it is tall. Breakfast is on the top floor (49th), and you can really see Guangzhou from there (depending on smog levels). I would second Greg in that you should take selfies with the sales person at the booth, if you anticipate doing any business with them in the future. To open the conversation with them later, email them the selfie, and they will probably remember you. And don8217t be so serious. If you can tell a joke or do something a little self debasing, they laugh with you and it breaks the ice. They relax and will ignore the other visitors until you are finished with them. In China, both Bank of China and ICBC ATMS usually work with American VISA labeled ATM cards. Normally. But depending on the year, one of the other will not. This varies. If ICBC does not work on this trip, then I just go to a BOC ATM instead. Make sure that you have some currency when you arrive. Even 200 RMB is generally enough to get you from Guangzhou airport to your hotel if near Canton. You can get that exchanged in advance at any major airport. I usually get it done in LAX or Seattle before I get on the plane to go over the Pacific pond. Guangzhou Metro stops working at 11PM, and if you arrive after that, you have to go to the taxi stand outside the airport. Make sure you have directions in Chinese to show to the driver. Your hotel can email these to you in advance. Danny McMillan says: Fantastic Kenny. Some great points here. Welcome to the conversation Loved the article. Might you be interested in appearing on my TV show It8217s taped in Minnesota, USA. Will Tjernlund and his brother Andrew have both been on it and Will has spoken at my Amazon Explosion events. I interview via Skype for the show. I8217d love to talk with you about this post on the show. If you are interested, please email me and we8217ll set up a time to discuss. Thanks so much, Lauri Danny McMillan says: Thanks Lauri. I am aware of your channel and have watch some of the content including the two brothers. I have friend requested you on FB or you can reach me via dannymcmillan to chat further. mark elliott says: I am thinking of going to China to attend Fairs and source. This article was simply amazing. Can8217t praise it more highly. thanks so much for the huge time investment in making this available for others. Danny McMillan says: Thank you Mark. You are more than welcome. I we hope this guide saves you a whole bunch of time in your pre planning Zafar Iqbal says: Thanks Danny, I8217m at the very early stages of my Amazon business( just going through the process of registering my Seller Central account). This is really very useful in helping me set up and then hopefully scale my business quickly. I look forward to your follow-up with the suppliersfactories etc As a Chinese exhibitor who attend the fair from 94th to 119th, I have to said something. 1.Don8217t take the guide from the fair as a trip guide, We will not obey the it to attend the fair. For example, our metal products will not show on the metal booth, pet products will not just show on the pet booths. In fact, many factories in the canton fair are not the real manufacturers, they are traders. So many experienced buyers, as I know in these twenty years from 119th, will have to search us from the hall to hall. Because they know it clearly, they can8217t find the best one in the real factories with best price and know the products well. Of course there are some real factories with the big famous brand, and higher price. 2.To find a factories for a deal a joke. The real factories can hardly meet your requirement on all this kind products. They can only do a few products by theirs own equipment. They tell a lier if they told you they can do all you need. 3.In many cases, the real cost to attend the fair is more than 7000USD, we have to earn it from the buyers. In most metal product and furniture booths, the cost will be 15000 US dollars. How can they give you the fair price There is a hint, the name showed on the name card will not be the the same as the fascia board with booth. 4.The fair is disorder, many new and good products with best price will be somewhere you will not aware of. The big booth the higher price. For example, there are a lot of new products with new idea will be appear in some smaller booth, but you have to take the risk of the quality. If it is good, gold is there. By the way, many experienced buyer usually take a good Chinese partner with them to the fair. Take it in mind, don8217t take the shipping agent and translator as a Chinese sourcing partners. They don8217t know the products and doing business. Hey Danny, great article I read it a couple of times in preparation for my first trip to Global Sources and Canton Fair. I have a question 8211 how do you find various WeChat groups related to these two events I8217m a part of one but would like to connect with more sellers. Barney Mac Donnell says: Wow, Danny. This has been a great help and an insight into your experience while over in China. Thanks for sharing all the tips and advice. Going to China in the next two weeks. Looking forward to hitting some of the fairs. Thanks again man. I have but one complaint..